U368 Mongol Conquest
Week 12, Wednesday:  Government and the People under the Yuan

 

  1. 1260-1272:  Honeymoon ear
    1. Convertible, solid paper currency
      1. Previously paper currency used locally, with silk reserves
      2. Zhongtong era bills:  convertible to gold/silver, limited term
      3. Gov't accepts own currency (in place of silver) for household tax
    2. Active surveys and re-registration of households and troops
    3. Steadily growing number of tax payers
      1. 1261:  1.4 million, 1274, 2.0 million (1/3 in appangages)
    4. More detailed division of tax ranks:
      1. Grain taxes tripled, household tax same, cloth taxes slightly higher
      2. Salt tax:  profit margin lowered (10 taels > 7 > 4.5), volume explodes
      3. By 1285, salt monopoly supplies over half of imperial income
  2. 1272-1287:  Song conquest, military adventures, and the Ahmad era
    1. Heavy printing of currency; continental trade increases silver supply
    2. Continued re-registration of soldier ranks
    3. Population increases enormously with S. China, but taxation lighter in south
      1. 14 million households:  north:  2 million; south:  11.5 million
      2. Salt quotas:  north:  1.1 million yin; 1.7 million yin (1329)
      3. Tea monopoly taken over from Song
      4. Grain tax:  north:  4 million dan; south:  7.75 million dan (1328)
      5. Commercial tax:  north:  450,000 ding; south 475,000 ding (1328)
    4. Conquering Korea and Song, Yüan becomes sea-faring power
      1. 1277:  offices to tax and supervise foreign trade established
      2. 1283:  Maritime grain transportation established, Grand Canal rebuilt
      3. Invasions of Japan (1274, 1280), Champa (1281), Java (1292-3)
  3. 1287-1297: Silver crisis (continental trade weakens–less silver from Europe)
    1. Retreat on convertibility; paper money emissions contract
      1. 1287: Zhiyuan bills printed; 5 per Zhongtong bill, non-convertible
    2. Jump in commercial taxes (paid in silver): 45,000 ding (1270) > 200,000 (1289)
    3. Salt tax profit margin raised (4.5 taels > 5)
  4. 1297-1350: renewed strong silver supply, but chronic financial weakness
    1. 1300: renewed emission of paper money; commercial, salt taxes rise
      1. Major expense is guards; increases with continued succession conflict
      2. 1310: attempt to use fiat currency to solve budget, fails
    2. Abandonment of re-registration of army and land
      1. 1314: Projected land survey abandoned due to protests of abuses
      2. Future reliance on amnesty for voluntarily declared land
      3. Salt tax profit margin raised (5 > 6.5 > 15 taels); up to 80% of budget.
      4. Commercial taxes increase: 450,000 ding (1289) > c. 925,000 (1328)
    3. After 1297: Government adopts non-confrontational attitude toward society

     

U368 Mongol Conquest
Week 12, Wednesday:  Mongol Culture under the Yuan

 

  1. The Phagpa script ("square script")
    1. Qubilai wants single script for the whole realm
      1. Thus Chinese words could be written by sound, not translated
    2. Phagpa invents script based on Tibetan, but vertical
    3. Used for many official purposes, outside Yüan too
    4. But Uighur script still dominant for Mongolian
  2. Tibetan Buddhism becomes court religion
    1. Translations of Tibetan and Sanskrit Buddhist works
      1. "Twelve Deeds of the Buddha" (Sanskrit)
      2. "Treasury of Aphoristic Jewels" (Tibetan didactic, proverbial work)
      3. "Mirror of Wisdom" (Phagpa's summary of Buddhism for Jingim)
    2. Uighurs still play key role, as scribes and translators
      1. Chosgi Odser, fl. 1313, translator, Buddhist praise poems
    3. Patronage by many Mongol princes
      1. Emperor as Bodhisattva (Juyongguan inscription)
  3. Mongols and Semu familiar with Chinese culture
    1. Mongol Hanlin academy:  translation, school for Mongol nobles
    2. History writing:
      1. Under Qubilai:  "Veritable Records of Five Reigns" (Mongolian)
      2. "Campaigns of the Divine Warrior"; Altan debter "Golden Record"
      3. Naonao and Togto'a:  edit Liao, Chin, and Song histories (1344-5)
    3. Translations from Chinese:
      1. "Classic of Filial Piety"