South American Prehistory
Lesson Objectives: Trace the development of several cultures on the continent; compare early civilizations here with others elsewhere on earth.
What geographical and archaeological biases appear in the discussion of native civilizations in South America? As discussed in the book (p. 365), the focus is always on the Andes highlands and the dry desert western coast. Why is the jungle ignored in so many treatments of South American archaeology? Because, well, it is a jungle out there, which presents two problems: preservation of remains is not good, and it is very difficult to do archaeology. This situation often resulted in the view that everything important happened in the west of the continent and bits of things diffused eastward. Lately the work of Anna Roosevelt and others has shown complex and early sociopolitical evolution in the lowlands of Venezuela and Brazil that developed indigenously, with little or no stimulus from the outside. But there is essentially no treatment of this vast area of the continent in the textbook.
What are some general characteristics to note in South
American civilizations? The culture history presents a picture of the
rise of horizon styles, sometimes associated with empire, and then the
shift to smaller regional states, and back again. We will again look
at just a few major sites, monumental centers. Preservation of organic
remains is often excellent on the desert coast, where cultures are named
after the valleys of the short rivers running to the sea on which they
are located. Fascinating political systems based on community organization
and state control and ownership seem to have evolved early. Centralized
rulership and ancestor worship meant that the living maintained the
monuments and compounds of dead rulers, and new leaders had to establish
their own centers. Domestic animals are more important than in North
America, especially the llama, for fur, eating, and carrying, and the
guinea pig, for food. Massive stone construction took place. The archaeological
record also shows how earthquakes and other continual tectonic movement,
expectable in the relatively young mountain chain of the Andes, affected
various cultural developments, as well as how the El Niño weather
pattern affected people making a living on the Pacific Coast. South
American civilizations are the only ones which developed no writing
systems, though they recorded bureaucratic details in other ways.
What is the maritime hypothesis? It is the
idea that sedentary, year-round, large-scale settlement and the development
of complex society is possible without agriculture in coastal areas
such as western Peru, where the resources are plentiful and dependable.
Mike Moseley, of the University of Florida, developed this hypothesis
to explain the foundations of civilization in Peru. We have certainly
seen early sedentism before in this class, even 4,000 years ago on the
south Florida coast. But here the argument is that it can lead to even
more complex developments.
How does evidence at the site of El Paraíso relate to this hypothesis? A major center on the desert coast, this site arose some 4,000 years ago during the preceramic period (before the introduction of pottery). Recent excavations have confirmed a dependence upon seafood, but there was also agriculture, especially of the industrial crop cotton. Beautiful cotton textiles, cloth, nets, etc., have been preserved in this exceedingly dry desert. Most of the food plants were wild, so the debate continues whether people would have needed farming to support the large population base. Meanwhile another argument against the near-total dependence upon the sea is that the periodic El Niño weather, which involves a warm current that kills off many species, would have made it impossible. Not mentioned in the text (p. 371) is that Moseley obtained evidence that during the times of El Niño, people just harvested different species that were not affected or that were more abundant.
What is the Chavín horizon? Named after
the type site of Chavín de Huántar, this is the Early
Horizon culture that may represent the earliest civilization, though
most archaeologists now think it is not a single culture but demonstrates
participation in a widespread ideological and possibly economic system.
In both coastal and Andean areas, temple and plaza complexes and stone
and pottery crafts are adorned with motifs that combine stylized geometric
renderings with figures of jaguars, caymans (lizards), and other animals
(many which live in the jungle!). The dating of Chavín to the last millennium
before Christ and the emphasis upon jaguar and other such images suggests
at least indirect connections with the Olmec in Mesoamerica. On the
desert coast this horizon style is manifested in the Paracas culture,
famous for its preserved colorful textiles which show the same artistic
designs.
What were the earliest regional states in
South America? Between 200 B.C. and A.D. 600, the Moche culture on the
north coast of Peru is famous for its huacas (pyramids), fine
metalwork, and ceramics that depicted every conceivable area of daily
life as well as spiritual and humorous ideas. The Huaca del Sol and
Huaca de la Luna (pyramids of the sun and moon) at the Moche site were
constructed with millions of adobe bricks that have marks possibly indicating
different brickworkers’ groups. Sipan is a Moche culture site
at which recently excavated unlooted tombs show royal burials rich with
gold and other finely crafted artifacts, as well as evidence relating
to the ceremonial system. High-status individuals are buried with regalia
making them look like the actual figures depicted in Moche art. Amputated
hands and feet and skeletons of people who were clearly killed document
the early development of ritual human sacrifice. Nazca was another regional
state, on the south coast of Peru, developing out of Paracas. Besides
pyramid centers, elegant textiles, and colorful painted pottery, this
culture is most famous for the Nazca lines, drawn on the floor of the
desert over several hundred square miles, in the shapes of geometric
figures, animals, and other forms. Yes, they are seen more clearly from
the air, but they are also easily seen from the ground or the surrounding
hills, and do not need ancient astronauts from another galaxy to have
been accomplished! They were drawn by removing dark rocks to expose
lighter desert floor; their meaning is unknown, but many designs are
of animals from the faraway jungle or sea.
What is the first evidence of possible empire?
During the Middle Horizon, between about A.D. 400-1200, the cultures
we call Wari and Tiwanaku arose, respectively, in the regions of southern
Peru and of Bolivia and Chile. The Tiwanaku site, on the high-altitude
Bolivian altiplano around Lake Titicaca, was a grand city with the famous
stone-sculpted Gateway of the Sun. These people also constructed raised
platforms with complex engineering for intensifying agricultural production
on low wetlands and had distinctive artistic styles and evidence of
militaristic conquest.
After the breakdown of these probable empires, what other, late prehistoric regional states emerged? The Chimu are known both from archaeology and from history that the Inca told to the Spanish. The Chimu capital at Chan Chan on the north coast was a huge city that controlled a state stretching from southern Ecuador to central Peru. It had extensive road and canal systems and craftworkers, especially goldsmiths, who made highly prized wealth items. This state lasted from about A.D. 800 until 1470, when it was conquered by the Inca, who brought Chimu goldsmiths to their own capital.
Who were the Inca? The last great civilization
of South America, they were similar to the Aztec of Mexico in gaining
power by militaristic conquest and strategy, and only began creating
an empire in the fifteenth century, shortly before the Spanish arrived.
Our knowledge of them is historic archaeology because we have Spanish
documents, but the Inca had no writing system. Instead they used the
quipu, a system of colored, knotted cords, to keep records.
They built the largest empire in the world up to that time and connected
it with an elaborate road system through the Andes. The capital was
Cuzco, a highland city which retains much of its prehistoric construction
plan. Machu Picchu is a highland fortress and royal estate famous for
its inaccessibility and was apparently little-known or altered by Spanish
conquerors. Inca construction techniques used huge pillow-shaped stones
that fit together well without mortar. Construction was done by the
mit’a system of groups of laborers drafted into state
service for specific tasks. Communication over the vast network of roads
was done by a relay messenger service of runners. The socialistic governmental
system was unlike anything known in Western society. The state owned
all the land and goods and people were fed and cared for, but owed labor
taxes or tribute in textiles and other goods. The Inca empire fell to
Spanish conquistadors under Pizarro, who arrived in 1532.
Are the Inca and other native South Americans gone? No. The large Indian populations
of course reflect all the change occurring over 500 years of European dominance,
but some native languages such as Quechua, the language of the Inca, are still
spoken. Indigenous peoples in South America remain mostly dominated by elites,
however, of Euro-American or other “foreign” descent.
What about archaeo-tourism and antiquities problems? There are many sites that can be visited, and museums filled with beautiful pottery, gold, and textiles. While it is similar to Mexico in that Americans can visit economically, the poverty of Peru and the region today is great. Looted antiquities are often the major means of subsistence of poor farming communities. The Sipan discoveries came after a disgruntled looter reported others to the police; it is famous because there had never been an unlooted grave discovered before. The market for such antiquities is high, such that the local looter gets a pittance compared with what the piece brings the dealer at auction in New York or London. It is hard for the public to understand that this is destruction of someone’s heritage. It is hard to care about heritage when you are starving or, alternately, when it is not thought to be your own heritage and all you want is some beautiful decoration for your wall. While public education is crucial, archaeo-tourism can have its negative sides too. Recently the ceremonial stone pillar at Machu Picchu was cracked by a crane involved in filming a beer commercial there!