Teotihuacan: Mesoamerica's
Largest City
Reading: Mesoamerican Archaeology: Linda Manzanilla, Chapter 5
Discuss why evolution produced a species that believe in little men and women that live in the earth or caves and need to be gratified by sacrifice.
Briefly discuss:
•psychological
functions (Malinowski 1925)
•social
functions (Durkheim 1915)
•cognitive
functions, religion as a way of organizing information, of gaining
insights through metaphor, of modeling the world, in fact, not so different
from Western science (?).
Teotihuacan: A Tour of the City
I assigned Linda Manzanilla's chapter because it summarizes information on the residences of common people at Teotihuacan, as opposed to the monumental architecture. I'm going to give you a general tour of the city, then we will start off next period by discussing Teotihuacan's apartment compounds as an institution that contributed to inequality in Teotihuacan or the resistance of inequality, as if we were going to use apartment compounds as the focus of Paper #2. This will give us all a chance to see what's involved in writing Paper #2.
Teotihuacan was the largest city in Mesoamerica prior to Aztec Tenochtitlan. At its height, it covered an area of 20 km2 (8 mi2), with a population of 150-200,000 people. During its existence, it was one of the ten largest cities in the world. It exercised extraordinary influence on the rest of Mesoamerica from 100-600 CE.
What explains the growth of Teotihuacan to urban proportions? A city is an inefficient form of settlement in many ways. City living increased the distance between Teotihuacan's who were farmers (80% of the population) and their agricultural fields, increasing their energy expenditure and travel time. Dense urban populations create sanitation problems and bad health (Millon [1988:143] estimates that half of Teotihuacans population died before the age of 15). High population densities also raise the potential for social conflict and violence. So what were Teotihuacan's advantages?
Teotihuacan was located in the northeastern Valley of Mexico. It was located near a series of springs that could be used to water newly planted agricultural fields, even in years when the summer rains were late in coming. In addition, Teotihuacan was located near two major obsidian deposits. Many blades from these two deposits are found in other areas of Mesoamerica, indicating that obsidian was an important tradegood. Obsidian may have been exchanged for high status goods from the Tierra Caliente such as quetzal feathers, cotton, jade, cacao, copal, and animal skins, enriching ceremonial life at Teotihuacan and making city residence attractive.
slide: The Street of the Dead from the top of the Pyramid of the Moon: The Street of the Dead constitutes the central axis of the city. Street of the Dead is what the Aztecs called this avenue, but the Aztecs lived 700 years after Teotihuacan's demise, so this name may or may not be the name used by the Teotihuacanos. The Street of the Dead is 5 km long and oriented N15o30'E, and all of the major structures in Teotihuacan (and in nearby communities) share that orientation. The Street of the Dead is crossed at right angles by the East-West Avenue, also 5 km. long, dividing the city into quadrants. These avenues were laid out early in Teotihuacan's history, about 100 CE.
slide: Pyramid of the Sun: The largest structure at Teotihuacan is also one of the earliest. The Pyramid of the Sun was constructed at about 100 CE. It is 700'x700' at the base, and 200' high, containing about the same volume as the Pyramid of Cheops. Unlike most pyramids in Mesoamerica, the Pyramid of the Sun was constructed all at once, instead of in a series of enlargements. Archaeologists have found an artificially constructed cave underneath the Pyramid of the Sun. It may have contained the burial of one of Teotihuacan's early rulers. Again, the Pyramid of the Sun is the name that the Aztecs had for this structure, but it faces west toward the sunset at summer solstice. This may indicate that the Temple of the Sun was, in fact, devoted to a solar deity.
slide: Pyramid of the Moon: The Pyramid of the Moon went through seven major construction phases, reaching its current size in 400 CE. The Pyramid of the Moon lies at the north end of the Street of the Dead, and it is framed by the slopes of Cerro Gordo, known to the Aztecs as Tenan ("Our Mother"), so perhaps the Pyramid of the Moon was devoted to an earth deity, as opposed to a lunar deity.
slide: The Ciudadela: The Ciudadela lies at the juncture of the Street of the Dead with the East-West Avenue. It is a large sunken plaza surrounded by temple platforms. It is large enough to have held the entire adult population of Teotihuacan, perhaps for religious ceremonies. The Ciudadela was constructed in 400 CE, and it involved moving as much earth as the construction of the Pyramid of the Sun, a major construction effort.
slide: The Feathered Serpent Pyramid: At the rear of the Ciudadela lies the Feathered Serpent Pyramid, constructed in 400 CE. This pyramid is unusual in being decorated with carved friezes and tenoned heads. The rest of the buildings at Teotihuacan were plastered and painted with murals, less labor intensive form of decoration. At the bottom of the Feathered Serpent Pyramid is the undulating body of a feathered serpent, perhaps a symbol of water and the fertility that it brings to central Mexico. In the panel above the carved head of a feathered serpent alternates with the head of a scaly reptilian figure with goggle eyes, perhaps a Mexican crocodile (caiman), a symbol of the calendar system and the beginning of time, according to the Aztecs.
slide: skeleton under the Feathered Serpent Pyramid: The Feathered Serpent Pyramid is also unusual in containing a massive sacrifice of over 200 individuals, laid out in symmetrical rows. These skeletons have their hands crossed behind their backs, as if their hands had been tied prior to sacrifice. Most are young men, ages 15-30, with uniform costumes as if they were members of the military. But rows of young women also are present. This pyramid may have contained the tomb of one of the early rulers of Teotihuacan, but the center of the pyramid had been entered and looted in prehispanic times, so we are not sure if a royal burial was present. In any case, it appears that such massive human sacrifices were not condoned in Teotihuacan, because the Feathered Serpent Pyramid was covered over by a plain pyramid soon after its construction, and no similar massive human sacrifice were made thereafter.
slide: Atetelco, an apartment compound: Aside from monumental buildings, the major form of construction at Teotihuacan was the apartment compound. About 4000 apartment compounds were constructed at Teotihuacan, each unique and yet all sharing the same general plan. The compounds were 50m to 60m on a side and housed from 30 to 100 individuals. They were surrounded by a high wall with just a few entrances or exits. They contained drainage systems that channeled sewerage away from the compound.
slide: Teotihuacan apartment complex: Compounds contained clusters of rooms arranged around open patios. Each patio with its rooms probably housed a single nuclear family. The patios admitted light and air, and most domestic and craft activity was probably carried out in the patio areas. Burials were placed under the floor of the patios and adjacent rooms.
slide: Compound shrine: Each compound contained a large central patio, surrounded by large rooms with a small shrine at the center. A few burials, usually adult males, are buried under the shrine. These graves contain the richest grave goods, and they may have contained the founders of the compound group. The families living in the compound may have been descended from the founders. Research by Michael Spence (1974) found that male skeletons in apartment complexes shared more genetic markers with each other than with females; Spence concludes that many of the nuclear families in a compound were related via patrilineal descent. The head of the apartment compound may have been the senior male of this descent group.
slide: Mural painting: Compounds varied in their elaboration. Some were decorated with rich murals.
slide: Patio of the Butterfly Palace: Some even had carved porch pillars inlaid with obsidian.
slide: Glyphs/emblems at Teotihuacan: Teotihuacan may have been ruled by a council of high ranking individuals rather than by a single king. For one thing, in contrast to the Maya, there are no inscribed stelae at Teotihuacan proclaiming the lineage and deeds of Teotihuacan's rulers. In fact, there are only scattered glyphs or emblems at Teotihuacan, not a true writing system, despite the fact that contemporary societies such as Monte Alban and the Maya were producing written texts at the time. Apparently, the Teotihuacanos chose not to adopt a writing system.
slide: Tepantitla, procession of priests: Another indication of rule by council or oligarchy is the frequent appearance of a procession of identical richly adorned figures, apparently engaged in some type of ritual activity. Scrolls coming from the mouths of these individuals indicate prayer or chanting. Small objects falling from their hands may be offerings.
slide: Temple platforms along the Street of the Dead: The Street of the Dead is lined with small temple platforms. Annabeth Headrick (20 ) suggests that these platforms may have been shrines to important lineage ancestors.
slide: Teotihuacan stone mask: Headrick further suggests that stone masks found in the platforms along the Street of the Dead may have intended for mummy bundles or funerary statues of lineage ancestors.
slide: Tetitla, Great Goddess: Deities at Teotihuacan face forward instead of in profile. One of these deities is the Great Goddess, identified as female by her cape (quexquemitl). In this mural, seeds, jade, and other good things fall from her hands, making her appear benevolent, but in other slides, her hands are clawed, making her appear dangerous and predatory.
slide: The Storm God: Another major deity is the Storm God, identified by his goggle eyes. He may be a variant of the rain-controlling Olmec sky god, and ancestral to the Aztec god Tlaloc.
slide: Tepantitla, "Tlalocan" mural: Common people are rarely depicted at Teotihuacan, but they may be represented in this mural. They appear to be participating in ritual activities: games, sacrifices, bathing. Others have suggested that this is a depiction of a Teotihuacano heaven.
slide: Female figurines, male figurines: Ceramic figurines also seem to depict common people, although rarely their activities.
slide: Jaguar mural: There's something a little creepy about Teotihuacan. Its art is highly impersonal: no attempt was made to depict the real world or to render perspective through size or shading. The colors used in the mural paintings are of similar chromatic loadings, so it's difficult for the eye to pick figures out of the background (Pasztory 1997:183). Figures occur in formal compositions, they or float in space. Figures are logographic, like trademarks: they symbolic meaning seems more important than viewing reality. Natural scenes are rare.
slide: Ceramic brazier: With their lack of writing, Teotihuacanos seems deliberately uncommunicative. Deity figures are reduced to their trappings: nose plaques, masks, earspools, but behind the jewelry, there's nobody there!
slide: Adosado: The bases of pyramids are also hidden by smaller platforms, called adosados.
slide: External walls/alley between compounds: The blank walls of the apartment compounds also seem to block vision. Complexes of rooms and passageways controlled movement within the compounds; mazeways of alleys and structural walls controlled the movement of people moving through the center. The passive control of people's movement to me suggests the existence of hidden power influencing people's lives.