The Archaeology of Volcan Mountain

Archaeological surveys were conducted on Volcan Mountain over a ten-year period (1991-2001) by the author. Crew labor was provided by volunteers, who were trained in site recognition and conservation. As a result, over 60 sites were recorded and mapped.

Most of the prehistoric sites recorded on Volcan Mountain have been assigned to the Late Prehistoric period of San Diego's cultural chronology. The beginning of the Late Prehistoric period in San Diego County is generally considered to have occurred approximately 1,500 years ago (Moratto 1984; Rogers 1945; Warren et al. 1993). The exact beginning of this period may vary within the region (potentially earlier in the east and later in the west). In general, the Late Prehistoric period is characterized by the appearance of small, pressure-flaked projectile points indicative of bow and arrow technology, the appearance of ceramics, the replacement of flexed inhumations with cremations, and an emphasis on inland plant food collection and processing (Meighan 1954; Rogers 1945; Warren 1964, 1968). Late Prehistoric village or base camp sites are relatively large, and contain internal activity areas attesting to the complex organization of activities within the site (Hector 1984). These village complexes often feature rock art in the form of pictographs, petroglyphs, and cupules. In the Cuyamaca Mountains, only petroglyphs and cupules have been found (Parkman 1981:184; Michael Sampson, personal communication). Only cupules have been found on Volcan Mountain (with the exception of site CA-SDI-14108 in Arkansas Canyon, where three grooves were found with the cupules).

Archaeological sites on Volcan Mountain have some similarities to sites identified in the nearby Cuyamaca Mountains. The archaeology of the Cuyamacas has been studied for many years. In the early twentieth century, Malcolm Rogers of the San Diego Museum of Man recorded and excavated many sites in what is now the state park. The rich prehistoric landscape is well documented. True (1970) conducted detailed surveys and limited test excavations in Cuyamaca Rancho State Park. True's surveys of the park resulted in the discovery of over 150 archaeological sites. Although most of the sites found in the area date to the Late Prehistoric period, there are sites without pottery that may be evidence of earlier use and occupation of the mountains.

The state of California began a two-phase program of inventorying the historic and prehistoric cultural resources of Cuyamaca Rancho State Park in 1981 (Foster 1981; Parkman 1981). The study consisted of extensive field surveys that resulted in the recordation of 87 additional archaeological sites within the park.

As a result of these studies, distinctive oval basin milling features were noted and described. One of the distinctive features of sites in the Cuyamaca Mountains is the presence of these milling features (Foster 1981; True 1970). Referred to as “Cuyamaca Ovals,” these features have a unique shape, and are often associated with sites located at the edges of meadows. The basins may be a specialized tool for processing grass and other small seeds found in this habitat. These features have also been found on Volcan Mountain (Hector 2004a:173), as will be described below. Interestingly, they have also been found at sites at the edges of meadows in Potrero, near the Mexican border (Hector 2004b), and in other locations. Some bedrock outcrops contain extensive complexes of oval basins, while others have oval basins, mortars, and slicks. Cupules may also be present. The association of oval basins with seed exploitation is an intriguing research direction. It would be productive if site investigations included detailed information about milling feature form, location, and abundance, as well as descriptions about the location's habitat and environment.

Although the vast majority of San Diego's currently recorded mountain sites are Late Prehistoric, as additional surveys are accomplished in the mountains, earlier sites are being discovered. Pigniolo (2005) identified Late Paleoindian or San Dieguito artifacts (ca. 8,500 years ago) at an archaeological site in the Mount Laguna area at an elevation of 5220 feet, which had been exposed by the 2002 Pines Fire. Local quartzite had been used to produce bifaces, and ground stone artifacts were also found.

VOLCAN MOUNTAIN SUMMIT

The Volcan Mountains have been the home of the Ipai Indians for thousands of years. Names for Volcan included a school site called a sit so min o mait , “sharp ridges;” and che milsch naha, a spring on the mountain (Davis n.d ., diary entry of November 1923). The mountain was also important to the Luiseño people, who lived north of the Kumeyaay, in the northern part of San Diego County and into Riverside County. The Luiseño called Volcan I'pa , and knew it as a mountain that was one of the First People (DuBois 1908 :115). Such locations often contained shrines or monuments identifying their cultural importance.

The summit ridges of Volcan within the preserve consist of several high points and two meadowlands, Simmons Flat and Ferguson Flat. The eastern sides of the ridges drop steeply down into the San Felipe Valley, and are windblown. Only two archaeological sites were found on the eastern side of the ridge. Most of the habitation sites are on the western side of the ridge, overlooking the Santa Ysabel valley and modern town site of Julian. Notable artifacts at the sites include obsidian, both as flakes and as finished tools, and buffware and brownware potsherds. Prominent features of these sites include distinctive vegetation types, extensive milling areas, and rock architecture.

Nine of the 36 sites on the summit of Volcan have rock architecture, consisting of stacked rock walls or room enclosures. Some of these sites also have pit features and one has a leveled area. The abundance of architectural features and structures on the summit of Volcan is unique.

CA-SDI-12925

Volcan's rock architecture is most notable at CA-SDI-12925, which extends over 1,500 feet down the ridgeline above Ferguson Flat. A rock wall one to five stacks high connects the four habitation loci. The rock wall runs along the spine of the ridge, and bedrock was incorporated into its construction. Two well-made rock enclosures end the site at one of the habitation loci (Figure 5). This particular locus is called the Cactus Site, because prickly pear cactus (Opuntia sp.) grows throughout the midden deposit (Figure 6). The site also contains extensive milling features and cupules. Figure 7 shows bedrock features located at the Cactus Site. The blue glass bead described below was found near this feature. Note that this feature contains mortars, basins, and slicks for processing a variety of plants -- acorns, seeds, and fibers. The slicks may have been used to abrade fibers such as yucca leaves, and to process pulpy foods, like cactus fruits and pads. Wild currant (Ribes cereum) is also notably abundant at the site; this plant is rare in San Diego County (Beauchamp 1986 :170). Very large elderberry bushes (Sambucus mexicana) are located throughout the site area. These plants may represent remnants of groves that were encouraged to grow in the vicinity by the site occupants.

One of the rock enclosures at the Cactus Site still contains two hewn logs, probably used to enclose the open side of the structure. One side of the enclosure is made from stacked rock, while two other sides are natural boulders and rocks. The fourth side is open, but with the two logs leaning against one another and two other sides. The cuts on the ends of the logs appear to have been made with a metal axe. According to notes made by Edward Davis, native people lived on Volcan into the early part of the twentieth century, and probably used the mountain later than that. Davis took a photograph of a lean-to summer campsite on Volcan; this enclosure could date to that time period.

In March 2005, the author and Carmen Lucas, Kwaaymii Indian from Lucas Ranch, found a potsherd at the Cactus Site that was later identified by Dr. Jerry Schaefer (personal communication) as Colorado Buff Ware, dating to the Patayan III period (post-A.D. 1600). The presence of late period desert pottery on Volcan supports the regular movement of people from the mountains to the desert, probably into historic times. Obsidian flakes from Obsidian Butte, a late source located at the southern end of the Salton Sea, were also found on the site. Studies of Obsidian Butte material indicate that this source was not available to prehistoric toolmakers while there was water in ancient Lake Cahuilla. As the lake receded, this source was revealed. Obsidian hydration dates for the source range from A.D. 1200 to 1800 (Dominici 1984; Laylander 1997).

A late nineteenth century glass trade bead was found at the Cactus Site (CA-SDI-12925, Locus 4), on the ground surface in the midden portion of the site. It is a cobalt blue hexagonal bead with beveled ends creating additional facets, with a lighter blue circle around the hole. Similar types of beads have been found at San Buenaventura Mission, Mission San Antonio, and Old Sacramento.

The presence of the glass trade bead and the hewn logs support the proposition that native people lived on Volcan long after other parts of San Diego County had been abandoned to settlers.

CA-SDI-13723

The rock architecture at another site on Volcan Mountain could have been a prehistoric fortification, although the presence of artifacts and midden suggests that it is a habitation site. CA-SDI-13723 consists of linked rings of at least 11 rock rooms and walls spiraling up a steep hilltop (Figures 8 and 9). Some of the stacked rock walls are over 1 m in height. The walls were made of loosely piled granite rocks and small boulders, some of which contain milling features (basins). The largest room is 6 x 3 m; the average size is 4 x 3 m. The site area is blanketed with sumac ( Rhus trilobata ) and western chokecherry ( Prunus virginiana ). These plants are growing within and between the rock rooms. Prickly pear and black oak ( Quercus kelloggii ) grow nearby. Obsidian and Tizon Brown Ware pottery were found in the rooms. Stone forts and structures were built by the Kumeyaay as defensive features (Spier 1923 :306). The location of the structure, overlooking the Santa Ysabel Creek watershed, would have provided an excellent lookout. However, it is not near any permanent source of water.

CA-SDI-12923 and CA-SDI-13760

Two sites in the Simmons Flat area are notable. CA-SDI-12923 contains several boulders with cupules (Figure 10). Some of the cupules are typical dimples in the rock, while two are deep and finely ground into the tops of the boulders. Figure 11 shows a deep cupule; this feature is approximately 3 inches deep and is perfectly smooth inside. Most of the other cupules at this site are shallow dimples on both horizontal and vertical surfaces of the boulders (Figures 12 and 13). This site also features milling, prickly pear cactus, and a midden deposit. Figure 14 shows a bedrock milling feature at the site. This feature is almost completely covered by use; mortars, basins, and slicks cover every available surface. Many of the cupule features are located under the thick growth of western chokecherry that covers the site.

CA-SDI-13760 is located on the next ridge west of CA-SDI-12923, and has a midden deposit on a leveled area. A rock room and possible walls have been built on the level area. The room was built at the end of the ridge, and is approximately 3 m in diameter. The perimeter of the room combines placed rocks and natural boulders. The site also contains milling features (basins and slicks). All of the oak trees at this site are canyon oaks (Quercus chrysolepis), which were not the preferred species.

CA-SDI-12922

This was the only site on the summit of Volcan Mountain that was in an area affected by the 2003 Cedar Fire (the 2002 Pines Fire burned below the summit). The fire burned the eastern face of the mountain, and came over the summit in an area where no sites are present. CA-SDI-12922 is on the last ridge before the precipitous drop into San Felipe Valley. Elderberry and sumac are located in thick patches throughout the site area. There are four milling features. An interesting feature located at this site is a boulder containing two very large mortars and three cupules. One of the mortars is only a half mortar; it is not clear whether it was made this way, or if the rock broke away at some distant time in the past. The complete mortar is 27 cm x 22 cm x 31 cm deep. It is not perfectly vertical, but is slanted as if someone always used it from the same direction. The half mortar is 27 cm x 23 cm (at the break) x 22 cm deep. It is highly polished all the way to the bottom. This milling feature was not damaged by the fire.

An old ranch road, used by the Rutherfords to move cattle between San Felipe Valley and Volcan Mountain, runs through this site and CA-SDI-13722. This road was used by firefighters and bulldozer operators during the 2003 fire to access the eastern slope of Volcan Mountain. Bulldozer tracks were noted on the road during a field visit by the author shortly after the fire. The use of the road had also resulted in a wider footprint of disturbance. The author and Ken Moslak made a site visit on June 30, 2005, to determine the status of the damage. There were no visible bulldozer tracks, and the road itself was nearly covered by new vegetation. Large flakes and potsherds were observed in the road area.

Summit Summary

Many of the sites on Volcan Mountain contain the milling features known as “Cuyamaca Ovals” (unique oval milling features described by Foster 1981 and True 1970). These distinctive bedrock basins are associated with Late Prehistoric sites within Cuyamaca Rancho State Park. Some of the examples from Volcan Mountain have the same shape, narrow at one end, and patterning, with the grinding surfaces located very close together (Figure 15). Most of the sites that contain Cuyamaca Ovals also feature mortars and slicks.

Of the 36 sites recorded on the summit, 35 had milling features, and five of these contain cupules as well. Twenty of the sites had midden deposits; pottery was associated with all but two of these. In addition to Tizon Brown Ware pottery, made in the mountains, many of the sites also contained desert buffware sherds. Two sites had pottery but no observed midden deposits. Three had obsidian flakes visible during the survey.

Several of the sites contained late period projectile points. Most of the points that were identifiable conformed to the Cottonwood Triangular type (Heizer and Hester 1978:11), which is the most common point type for the Late Prehistoric period in San Diego County (True 1970). Side-notched points have also been observed occasionally at sites on Volcan Mountain, as well (e.g., a nearly complete quartz specimen at CA-SDI-16099); these points are similar to Desert Side-notched points that are common in the desert west. There has been discussion among researchers concerning which type came first in the region, Cottonwood Triangular or Desert Side-notched, since both appear to postdate A.D. 1000; Laylander (1997:77) suggested that the frequencies of point types is more of a geographical rather than chronological difference. In terms of stone material types, fine-grained metavolcanic and quartz flakes are common in the sites.

Only four of the 36 sites were on east-facing slopes or ridges. Weather is much more severe on the eastern slopes, with high winds from the desert battering these locations. In addition, the springs located near the summit are on the western side of the ridgeline.

Four of the sites are characterized by prickly pear cactus and western chokecherry. Fred Sproul, a botanist who has studied Volcan extensively, found many large, ancient clones of Western choke cherry on the mountain. When present, these plants grow in the middle and throughout the site, and nowhere else in the vicinity. Hedges and Beresford (1986:27, 32) indicated that the Kumeyaay used both prickly pear and wild cherry (Prunus ilicifolia) as food plants. The fruit and seed of the western chokecherry was a very popular food among California Indians, and was gathered in great quantities when available (Anderson 2005 :274-275). The fruit itself is somewhat bitter. It is more likely that the seeds were ground into flour or meal for use with a variety of other foods. The Indians of San Diego ate the large seeds of Prunus spp. (Hedges 1980 :131-132). The seeds would have been cracked on a slab metate, and the meat of the seed removed and ground, and leached with cold water (Timbrook 1982:169). Many of the milling features on Volcan may be associated with processing this important food source, which would have been available months before the acorn harvest. There is no doubt that the cherry plants present on the sites at Volcan were either planted or, if natural, were encouraged to grow.

Many of the sites on Volcan's summit have economically important plants growing in or near them. In some cases, these plants grow nowhere else on the mountain.

The summit of Volcan Mountain also features historic sites. In 1928, airway beacons were established on peaks throughout the United States to visually guide aircraft. Volcan Mountain was one of the peaks identified as an airway hazard (there are still unfortunate crashes into the mountain, due to unpredictable wind updrafts from the desert). Although the original airway beacon is gone, its tower and supporting features still exist on the summit (although these were partially burned in the 2003 Cedar Fire).

A cabin foundation and chimney (CA-SDI-3721) are recorded in Simmons Flat at 5000 feet in elevation (Figure 16). According to Bradford Behr of the California Institute of Technology (personal communication), Volcan Mountain was on the short list of locations that were tested between 1928 and 1932 for placement of the Hale Telescope, which was eventually placed on Palomar Mountain. Behr related that the astronomers returned to the potential sites many nights throughout the year to evaluate conditions, establishing outposts or residences in some cases. The cabin may have been occupied by an astronomer evaluating Volcan Mountain for placement of the telescope.

ARKANSAS CANYON

Volcan Mountain is linked to San Felipe Valley by Arkansas Canyon, providing a travel route from the desert to the mountains and the coast beyond. In addition, Arkansas Canyon contains several Late Prehistoric village sites and many resource processing sites. Thirty-one prehistoric archaeological sites have been recorded in the canyon, 28 of which have milling features (Hector 2003). Many of the sites have obsidian flakes scattered on their surface.

The canyon is a broad, oak-lined valley. It crosses several ecological zones, from mesquite groves near the valley floor to pines near the top of the canyon. Native grasses, seeds, herbs, and animals were also abundant in the canyon. The canyon is notable as the easternmost location of Engelmann oak (Quercus engelmannii ).

A master's thesis at San Diego State University focused on the use of native plants by the Indians living in Arkansas Canyon (Chaddock 1995), recording economically important plants associated with archaeological sites in Arkansas Canyon, and concluding that there was an association between plants used ethnobotanically and site locations. Chaddock (1995:92) quoted an unpublished report by Judy Swink, based on research using Fred Grand's diaries, which said Indian women gathered medicinal plants on his Arkansas Canyon land in 1904-1905.

The archaeological sites in Arkansas Canyon are smaller habitation areas than those on the summit of the mountain. They contain obsidian, Tizon Brown Ware, and desert buffware pottery, and at least one has a possible pit house structure. For the most part, however, the sites in the canyon appear to be seasonal camps, used for the exploitation of specific plant resources.

Five sites in Arkansas Canyon have cupule rock art. CA-SDI-14108 contains a boulder with four mortars, two cupules, and three grooves carved between the cupules (Figure 17). This site may represent more extensive habitation than most of the others in the canyon. The presence of grooves in the rock art of southern California is considered rare (Minor 1975a).

The most notable site in Arkansas Canyon is the 1890s Grand family settlement of the (CA-SDI-12812). Extensive research on the Grand family has been conducted by historian Judy Swink, including a translation of the diaries of Fred Grand. Briefly, the Arkansas Canyon area was settled by brothers August and Frederic Grand, of Provence, France, in 1888 and 1891. By 1892, Fred had built a homestead in Arkansas Canyon, and had planted grapes, pears, and apples. Remains of the homestead include a Basque-style oven, an adobe house, and a rock barn and storehouse. The storehouse is referred to as the Grand Winery, and is a fine example of stone masonry. Unfortunately, these structures were damaged during the 2002 Pines Fire, and are at great risk of collapse (Figure 18). An assessment conducted by Wayne Donaldson for the California Department of Fish and Game evaluated the condition of the structures, and recommended stabilization and restoration (Donaldson 2003).

Other historic sites recorded in the canyon include stock tanks, concrete foundations, and other features related to cattle ranching, some of which were damaged during the fire.

The name Arkansas Canyon has puzzled many. A possible explanation is that the name refers to a man who lived in the remote canyon area. A story about this man was written as part of the Federal Writers Project (Taylor 1939). In 1874, Banner had a haunted house that had once been a store. After it was abandoned due to the ghost stories, a man named Arkansas took up residence. He had been raised in the woods, and claimed that he could not be scared by “owls and mice.” However, strange noises began to disturb his sleep. He heard groaning, and a sound like someone stropping a razor. Convinced his neck was about to be cut, he left the house. Later, a ghost was seen at the house, and it was demolished soon after. Banner is at the base of Volcan Mountain, and it is possible that Arkansas Canyon was named after the man called Arkansas, who may have lived in the thickly forested area in the upper reaches of the canyon. According to Stein (1978:6), the name is from an early settler who was from Arkansas; he lived in the canyon in the 1870s, and was murdered there “under mysterious circumstances.”

SAN FELIPE VALLEY

San Felipe Valley was a major travel corridor through the desert throughout prehistory, and became a stagecoach route. The San Felipe Stagecoach Station was located near Scissors Crossing (the intersection of State Route 78 and County Road S-2), and was active as a Butterfield stop between 1858 and 1861; it was used later by various other stage operators (Lindsay 2001:303). It was a wooden stage station, and the lumber was cut from Volcan Mountain; the trail used to haul it down the mountain into the valley was still visible in 1934 (Lindsay 2001:304). After the station was abandoned, the wood was hauled back up into Arkansas Canyon and remained there for many years (San Diego Historical Society Oral History Program 1962). Some of the wood was used by the Grand family to construct outbuildings on their Volcan ranch (Lindsay 2001:304).

The San Felipe Valley contains many Indian villages and campsites. The main village of San Felipe was called La Cienega, or We-nelsch in the native language; Edward Davis described the removal of these people from their village in September 1903 to the Pala Reservation (Davis n.d. ). This latest village may have been one of many that were established over the centuries near San Felipe Creek and Sentenac Marsh (Schwaderer 2001:78-79). Villages extended throughout the valley; evidence of earlier occupation could have been buried or washed away by flooding.

Rivers (1989) discussed at length the various historic records concerning the villages along San Felipe Creek and Vallecito. There were more than one noted by the early explorers, beginning with Pedro Fages in 1782. The various descriptions of villages along the creek include statements that the settlements appeared deserted; the villagers may have fled the approaching parties, or they may have merely been at seasonal camps in the mountains. The villages were dependent on acorns, mesquite, deer, agave, and rabbits. There are several historical accounts attesting to the skill of the native people in using a rabbit stick (Rivers 1989).

A records search was conducted by the author at the Museum of Man on July 29, 2005, to determine whether their archives contained any mapping or information about the sites. No sites are shown in Arkansas Canyon, and only one, C-202, was mapped near the project area. There are several forms for sites within the project area, but these are not shown on the Museum maps. One, C-124D, was recorded during the 1969 survey as a village of five adobe structures. Rae Schwaderer, in her research for her master's thesis, identified this site as the likely location of the village We-Nelsch, abandoned in 1903. She found three ethnographic village sites in San Felipe Valley, in and near the project area. The first was located at Scissors Crossing, where State Route 78 intersects with County Road S-2. Schwaderer (2005) believes that this village was deserted in the 1880s when the Sentenacs settled the area. The second site is C-124D, which she found on the Department of Fish and Game property. The location of this site was recently confirmed during a field trip conducted by Schwaderer, Michael Sampson, and the author in November, 2005. The third site is north of the project area, and includes a cemetery. The cemetery and site were damaged by bulldozers during fire suppression activities related to the 2002 Pines Fire.

An important artifact found during survey of San Felipe Valley was a projectile point discovered near the confluence of Arkansas Canyon and San Felipe Valley. Discovered by a Society for Amateur Scientists member and survey volunteer, the isolated point was on a rocky ridgeline far from any camp or village site. It was identified as an Elko-eared projectile point, which dates in the Great Basin between 1200 B.C. and A.D. 600 (Heizer and Hester 1978). Most of the other points found during the surveys have been the Late Prehistoric triangular (Cottonwood Triangular) points. The discovery of the Elko-eared point supports the use of this area as a trade corridor over a long period of time.

The village of We-Nelsch and other archaeological sites are located in San Felipe Valley near the lower elevations of Volcan Mountain. The people living in these sites most likely established seasonal camps on the mountain. Arkansas Canyon was the most likely corridor used to travel seasonally from the desert to the mountain. Further research on the camps established along this linkage is needed.