* The Archaeology of Volcan Mountain *
The Arkansas Canyon and San Felipe areas of Volcan Mountain are a transition from the mountain habitats found at the highest elevations to the desert. Arkansas Canyon is an ecotone with oak woodland vegetation grading into desert species over a relatively short distance. Within the area surrounding a single site, plants include catclaw, coast live oak, Engelmann oak, prickly pear, desert apricot, yucca, buckwheat, and manzanita. Twenty-four prehistoric sites have been recorded in Arkansas Canyon; of these, 22 are considered to be plant processing sites; only two are habitation sites. Arkansas Canyon can be characterized as the "pantry" for Volcan Mountain, and likely had an established trail system.
The mountain itself, with its blustery winter days and light snow cover, was primarily a spring-summer-fall camping area. During these seasons, acorns, fruit, and grasses and other seeds provided ample resources for native people. True (1970:54-57) reviewed early histories and ethnographies of the Cuyamaca Mountains and concluded that Indians from the desert areas moved to the mountains in the summer and fall to take advantage of seasonal resources such as acorns.
Some of the largest canyon oaks in the state are found on Volcan Mountain. Four species of oak trees live on Volcan Mountain, in addition to scrub oak; these provided an abundance of food for the Indians. Of these, the black oak was favored (Hedges and Beresford 1986 :33). Grass seeds were a major focus; several native grasses were found in the mountain meadows by Fred Sproul, botanist, including sand dropseed ( Sporobolum cryptandrus ), three-awn ( Aristida purpurea ), creeping wildrye ( Lyemus triticoides ), and deergrass ( Muhlenbergia rigens ). The use of the western chokecherry has been mentioned previously; these and other fruits and berries were abundant on the mountain. The elevations of Volcan Mountain provided a welcome relief from the desert's summer heat. The many springs of Volcan guaranteed ample water supplies for its seasonal residents.
It is very likely that the Indians of Volcan Mountain practiced what Hildebrand and Hagstrum (1995:105) have termed Òcasual horticulture.Ó This subsistence strategy includes burning, selective weeding, pruning and cutting, and transplanting to enhance the production and vigor of certain plant species. Anderson (2005) and Lewis (1973) documented many cases throughout California where native people seasonally managed patches and groves of plants through burning. Although much effort is required for this strategy, the payoff is a more reliable resource base. Larger, more sedentary populations may have been developed based on the strategy.
CUPULE ROCK ART ON VOLCAN MOUNTAIN
The presence of cupules at several of the Volcan sites on the summit and in Arkansas Canyon attests to the integration of religious activities into every day life. Cupules were noted at five of the recorded Late Prehistoric sites on the summit of Volcan Mountain, and at five of the prehistoric sites in Arkansas Canyon. Cupules are small, cup-shaped depressions that are pecked or ground onto a horizontal or vertical rock face. These forms are found all over the world. Their identification and function is not always well understood; there is limited reference to them in the ethnographic literature (True and Baumhoff 1981). Cupules may have had different functions in different contexts. Location may have been important in defining function (Smith and Lerch 1984). Further ethnographic research is needed for this subject; however, general interpretations are still possible for these enigmatic features.
In southern California, cupules typically occur at occupation sites that contain Late Prehistoric artifacts (Hedges 1981; Minor 1975a; Whitley 2000); this is true at Volcan Mountain, where they are not found outside of late sites. Milling (mortars, basins, and slicks) occurs commonly with cupules. Cupules can occur with pictographs in rock shelters. Sometimes they have grooves or incising between them or linking them (as at CA-SDI-14108 in Arkansas Canyon). Cupules can be patterned, possibly to represent constellations or other astronomical phenomena (Brown 1999). Cupules may also be associated with ringing rocks, which are unusual rocks that make a bell tone when struck (Hedges 1981:13). Cupules have been proposed to be associated with fertility (Hedges 1981:14). Sometimes, women who wished to conceive would consume rock dust from cupules; or, they were ground by girls during puberty ceremonies (Whitley 2000:98-100).
The presence of incised or carved grooves with cupules is considered rare in southern California (Minor 1975a). Site CA-SDI-14108, located in Arkansas Canyon, is an unusual habitation site containing rock art with both cupules and grooves. It is likely that as more surveys are done in San Diego's mountain areas, additional sites with cupules and possibly grooves will be discovered.
As one of the First People, Volcan Mountain was probably regarded as having power; there may have been shrines or other markers at one time. These shrines could be represented archaeologically as rock piles or platforms (Bean 1976:415; Hudson and Underhay 1978:68-70). Petroglyphs (engraved rock art), as yet undiscovered, could be present on Volcan (petroglyph rock art has been found in the Cuyamaca Mountains [Parkman 1981:176; 1984], so it is expected that petroglyphs could be found on Volcan).
PREHISTORIC ARCHITECTURAL SITES ON VOLCAN MOUNTAIN
Rock architecture is a relatively common component of sites on Volcan Mountain, but is rare overall in the region. Stone circles or enclosures have been found at inland sites. These are generally built around natural boulders, incorporating the rocks into the design (Minor 1975b:28). Kyle (1988) described several different types of rock enclosures: granary bases, ramadas/shades, rooms, walls/alignments, ovens, hearths/pits, and wells. An additional type, a dance ground, was described by Oxendine (1981). The dance ground that she studied in northern San Diego County appeared at first to be a boulder enclosure; it was identified as a dance ground based on ethnographic research. The feature has a clearly identifiable opening on the north end, which was a clue to its function.
Often when more than one enclosure is present at a site, they share one or more common walls. These may have been residential locations, small stone houses with brush roofs, or they may have been ceremonial or defensive in function. The excavation of an extensive complex of stone enclosures near Rancho Bernardo resulted in the conclusion that the rooms were probably dwellings (Kyle 1988; Van Wormer and Carrico 1993). Interestingly, Minor (1975b:39), in reporting the excavation of an enclosure area on Kitchen Creek, mentioned the possibility that such structures were built as seasonal habitation and use areas in the mountains.
A site on Volcan, CA-SDI-13723, may have been built as a defensive fortification. The small rooms nested together on the prominent knoll overlooking Santa Ysabel Valley may have provided a lookout and fort. The nearby site of Wikolokal, at the head of Cottonwood Creek, may also contain stone structures meant for defense. Ten stone structures have been recorded at the site (Gallucci 2001:26). Additional ÒStone FortsÓ were observed near La Posta by Spier (1923:306); these were built as defensive structures during local conflicts over territory. CA-SDI-13723 also contains midden, artifacts, and a milling feature, indicating that it functioned as more than just a lookout.
The two stacked rock rooms at CA-SDI-12925 are square in shape, suggesting a date of construction in the historic period. These may have been summer houses. The round room of CA-SDI-13760 is more typical of a residential structure. The rocks would have been used to secure poles that were used in the construction of the dwelling. The long wall associated with this site, running along the ridgeline and connecting the various site loci, may have been a wind break or may have marked out different components or dwelling areas of the site. The wall incorporates existing bedrock outcrops; it is deteriorated and difficult to identify in areas. No other rock walls were recorded on Volcan Mountain.
One of the rock enclosures on Volcan Mountain was excavated when the area was proposed for development (Cardenas and Robbins-Wade 1986). CA-SDI-10631 contained a rock enclosure consisting of a rock-lined circular depression with an opening facing east. The feature measured 3 m in diameter, and the walls were less than 1 m in height. One 1-x-1 m test unit was excavated in the center of the enclosure. Cultural material found inside the enclosure led the archaeologists to conclude that it was a dwelling, probably covered originally with brush, which was used for seasonal camping on the mountain.
In Arkansas Canyon, a rock circle was recorded at CA-SDI-14544. The rocks were piled approximately 30 cm high. The association of a milling slick on a boulder adjacent to the rock circle suggests that the rocks held down a shade structure or ramada for the comfort of the individual using the milling feature (as suggested for this type of feature by Tom Lucas, Kwaaymii Indian, in Kyle 1988:217).