Suggestions for Preparing
Archaeological Site Records and Site Maps
by:
John Betts
February 2001
Editorial Note: This report is published in the CDF
Archaeological Reports series as Report Number 27. All reports in the CDF
series are available for purchase from Coyote Press, P.O. Box 3377, Salinas,
California, 93912. You may order on-line by visiting the Coyote Press web site
at www.coyotepress.com
or telephone them at (831) 422-4912.
This version of John's excellent report was adapted for posting on the
CDF Archaeology Program Web Site. It
has been slightly revised from the published report.
Introduction
The California Department of Forestry and Fire
Protection (CDF) has identified a need for an instructional manual for the
preparation of Archaeological Site Records. Since I have conducted numerous
archaeological field surveys, project reviews, and site recording projects for
CDF during the past several years and am familiar with common problems observed
by CDF during their review of site records, I was asked to prepare this manual.
CDF has played an important role in the development of the archaeological site
recording procedures currently employed in California. This agency has also been a strong supporter
of programs and policies leading to improvements in the overall quality of site
records being produced in our state.
This site recording manual was prepared for use in CDF's Archaeological
Training Program. It is also published
in the CDF Archaeological Reports series and posted on the CDF
Archaeology Program Web Site to reach a broader audience including professional
archaeologists. We believe this
information may prove to be useful to anyone responsible for recording historical
resources.
The California State Office of Historic Preservation
(OHP) has established a unified system for documenting the full range of
historical resources that can be found within the state. This system employs a variety of forms
beginning with the Primary Record, which is used to collect fundamental
information on all types of resources.
Additional forms are then utilized depending on the type of resource
being recorded such as the Building, Structure, Object Record, the
Archaeological Site Record, and the District Record. Optional attachments to
these forms including the Linear Feature Record, Milling Station Record, Rock
Art Record, Artifact Record, and Photograph Record, can then be utilized as
necessary. OHP has provided a manual
entitled Instructions for Recording
Historical Resources (1995) that establishes criteria on the kinds of
resources that should be recorded and the different levels of information that
may be appropriate to gather on any specific type of resource. This manual also provides detailed
step-by-step instructions for completing the various forms. The OHP manual should be referred to for the
specific requirements needed to complete these forms and all records should be
filled out in accordance with these instructions.
The OHP manual does not, however, provide any
instructions for acquiring the information needed to complete these forms. The instructions in the OHP manual are
directed primarily at the experienced field-worker, and assume a basic knowledge
of archaeological field techniques. The
intended purpose of the current presentation is to provide guidelines and
technical assistance for conducting the actual fieldwork necessary to gather
this information, and then transforming this information into a completed site
record. This presentation focuses on
the completion of the Primary Record and the Archaeological Site Record.
Special emphasis has been placed on the preparation of archaeological site
maps. This presentation does not cover the other types of resource
documentation forms. It is the goal of
CDF to provide the assistance necessary to enhance the efforts put forward in
archaeological fieldwork towards the completion of professional quality
Archaeological Site Records.
There are a great variety of methods that can be employed
in the recording of archaeological sites. Some of these techniques do not
require any special knowledge or expensive equipment. Some of the topics that
will be covered in this presentation include useful equipment and supplies,
methods of measurement, site survey strategies, designation of site boundaries,
site descriptions, location information, environmental observations, site
naming conventions, site mapping techniques, and the completion of the final
site record forms. A completed site
record for a fictitious archaeological site is included as an example of the
results that can be attained by following the techniques described here. Some
of the information in this presentation may seem rudimentary, but it has been
included for the benefit of those who may be undertaking archaeological
fieldwork for the first time. Regardless of your level of expertise, hopefully
some information can be found here that may prove helpful to anyone recording
archaeological sites in California.
Archaeological Site Records
The Archaeological Site Record represents the most basic
and fundamental means of obtaining and preserving information on archaeological
sites. Essential components of any site
record should include a site name, identification number, location, description,
size, type, constituents, environment, integrity, significance, landowner, name
of recorder, recording date, and references (Feder 1997:68). It is not unusual for a site record to be
the only documentation that will ever be available for a site (OHP 1989:2). You might be the only person to have an
opportunity to investigate a particular site, and your record might be the only
documentation of that site that is ever prepared. The Archaeological Site Record and in particular the Site Map,
are vital tools for implementing successful site protection measures during
project operations. These are just some
of the reasons why it is critically important that complete Archaeological Site
Records be prepared for all sites when they are encountered.
A variety of definitions can be cited as to what exactly
constitutes an archaeological site (Feder 1997:42; Foster and Dillon 1999:3;
Heizer and Graham 1967:14; King 1978:2-3; National Register Bulletin 1997:15;
OHP 1995:3; Thomas 1998:95). Generally,
these definitions can be summarized as any specific location where physical
evidence of past human activities can be identified. Sites can contain various forms of evidence including cultural
features, artifacts, or anthropic soils.
Some common prehistoric site types include villages, temporary
campsites, rock shelters and caves, quarries, bedrock milling features, and
petroglyphs. A considerable number of
historic site types can also be encountered, largely depending on the types of
historic activities that occurred in any particular region. Some of the more
common historic site types found on forested lands in California include
habitation areas, structural remains, trash scatters, privy pits, mines and
tailings, sawmills, railroad grades, wooden log chutes, roads, trails, ditches,
rock walls, fences, and cemeteries. The
following guidelines represent a systematic procedure for gathering the
necessary information to prepare complete Archaeological Site Records for some
of these types of resources.
Equipment and Supplies
Before undertaking any archaeological investigation, the
field-worker should be outfitted with the necessary tools and materials to
carry out the intended project. The
following list provides a brief discussion of some equipment and supplies that can
typically be employed during the recording and mapping of archaeological
sites. Many of these items are based on
individual techniques and personal preferences. A plethora of modern high-tech equipment is available that could
be used in site recording activities, but I have focused instead on some simple
methods that can be carried out by anyone with these basic tools.
USGS Map: The
appropriate USGS 7.5' quadrangle maps covering your project area are essential
for both archaeological survey and site recording work. Original map sheets should be used whenever
possible. Details of map features that
can be important aids in plotting site locations are lost on black and white
photocopies. If maps are to be used
over an extended period, it is a good idea to carry them in a flexible vinyl
case such as those available for aerial photographs.
Compass: One of
the most important tools for fieldwork is an accurate compass. The mirror-sighting base-plate compass is
widely used by field archaeologists. Good
quality instruments are available from Silva and Suunto. The base-plate compass combines the
functions of a compass, protractor, and straight edge, which can be extremely
helpful when drafting site maps in the field.
Many of these compasses can also be adjusted for declination.
Measuring Tape:
A retractable steel tape is necessary for measuring individual finds.
Metric measurements are required when recording prehistoric archaeological
sites. Tapes which combine both the
English and Metric systems are available from Stanley and Lufkin. A longer fiberglass tape can be useful for
measuring large features or precise distances to important finds.
Flagging: Bright
fluorescent-colored flagging can be used for marking the location of individual
features and artifacts as they are encountered. Other specially marked flagging, such as "Special Treatment
Zone" or "Equipment Exclusion Zone" are often used for
designating site boundaries.
Sharpie: A
waterproof marking pen, such as a Sharpie, can be used to label flagging that
designates individual features and artifacts.
Pencils: All
field notes and drafting should be executed in pencil. Berol Turquoise is a quality brand of
drafting pencils with good consistency in lead weights and non-smearing
properties. The standard 2H lead weight
is good for taking notes. A harder 3H
will hold a sharp point longer for drafting maps. The softer H lead weight may be needed under extremely humid
conditions. A lead holder is a
versatile way of employing different lead weights.
Pencil Sharpener:
A small hand-held pencil sharpener can be handy. If a lead holder is
used, pocket-sized lead pointers are available that are good for keeping leads
sharp when drafting maps.
Erasers: Some
pencils come with attached erasers, but these are not usually of drafting
quality. Erasers that can be slipped
over the end of a pencil are a good alternative for use with drafting quality
pencils. A Pink Pearl is good to have
on hand for large mistakes.
Ruler: A small
plastic combination ruler (6"/10 cm) can be used when drafting site maps.
UTM Calculator:
The clear plastic UTM calculator can be used for scaling measured
distances directly onto USGS topographic maps, as well as calculating the UTM
coordinates. Some compasses now come with a UTM scale.
Trowel and Whisk Broom:
These standard archaeological tools are most useful during site
recording for exposing features such as bedrock mortars and milling slicks that
will be included as part of the site record.
Vest: The
equipment listed above can be organized and conveniently carried in a
field/cruiser vest.
Clipboard: A
standard clipboard can be used when drafting site maps and for filling out site
record forms.
Graph Paper:
Graph paper with horizontal and vertical ruling is very convenient for
drafting site maps. Graph paper ruled
in metric increments should be used whenever possible.
Forms: A supply
of blank site record forms should be taken into the field. A set of forms has been developed by CDF
specifically for this purpose. Lines
have been provided so that the forms can be filled out while on the site. These forms include the Primary Record,
Archaeological Site Record, Rock Art Record, and Linear Feature Record. Copies of these forms are attached to this
manual.
Notebook: Some
field-workers prefer not to fill out prepared forms, in which case it is a good
idea to compile your observations in a bound notebook to prevent the loss of
loose pages. A notebook with grid pages
is a good place to compile measurements and to draft site maps and artifact
drawings.
Photographic Equipment:
A photographic record can be an important component of a complete site
record. The camera of your choice, and
a selection of print films should be on hand when doing site recording. Black-and-white photographs are required for
records of historic buildings, structures, and objects. If your camera requires a battery for any of
its functions, it is a good idea to have an extra one when going out into the
field.
Map Wheel: A map
wheel can be used to calculate a mileage log from the USGS quadrangle map as
part of the site location information.
Drafting Equipment:
After returning from the field, a few drafting tools that can be used
for preparing site maps include a drawing board, light table or portable
tracing box, T square, triangles, protractor, drafting tape, triangular metric
scale, pencils, erasers, and technical ink pens.
Fieldwork
Archaeological fieldwork typically begins with a site
survey which is intended to provide information on the number, location, and
nature of archaeological remains in a specific area. When properly executed, the survey can provide the basis for a
preliminary characterization of the archaeology of a region. One of the principal sources of information
for the archaeological survey is the physical inspection of the terrain by the
field-worker (Heizer 1953:1-2; Heizer and Graham 1967:14). Survey methods and the rationale behind them
are discussed in detail by King (1978).
A survey can be accomplished by simply walking over the surface of a
region and visually inspecting the ground for evidence of archaeological sites
(Feder 1997:54). Some basic
archaeological survey strategies that should be employed for CDF projects are
described by Foster (1999:316-321).
This level of survey is defined as a reconnaissance survey (Derry et al.
1985:12-13; OHP 1995:Appendix 6). The
reconnaissance survey should provide a general impression of the archaeological
resources of an area by identifying obvious or well-known sites, checking the
existence and condition of sites identified by background research, and
identifying areas where certain kinds of sites are likely to occur (Feder
1997:43-44).
Once the survey of a project area has been completed and
the cultural resources located within that area have been identified, the
extent of site recording needs can be determined. The potential impacts to
sites and the protection measures that may be necessary are important factors
in determining the level of site recording that must be undertaken. The completeness and adequacy of previous
site records will also need to be evaluated.
Other considerations include the complexity of the archaeological remains,
their visibility, and the time and resources that are available (Heizer and
Graham 1967:14). When these
determinations have been made, you are ready to begin the actual site recording
process.
Measurement Methods
Before beginning the site recording fieldwork, a few
technical issues need to be addressed concerning the methods to be used in
gathering information and the level of accuracy necessary to accomplish your
recording needs. The fundamental
requirement in site recording is a systematic method of measuring the location
of individual finds. It is essential to
establish a controlled system of recording the exact location or provenience of
features, artifacts, and other phenomenon (Napton and Greathouse
1997:208). The procedure that will be
described in this presentation is known as the radial method (Joukowsky
1980:95; Napton and Greathouse 1997:204-205).
This method consists of measuring distances and directions from a
specified control point known as the site datum.
Measuring horizontal distances can be accomplished by a
variety of techniques including pacing, taping, chaining, the transit-stadia
method, and electronic distance measuring devices (Joukowsky 1980:96). Pacing is a widely accepted method of
measurement in site recording fieldwork.
While not always the most accurate method, particularly over steep and irregular
terrain, pacing is usually adequate for basic site recording purposes. If you plan to use pacing as your method of
measurement, the level of accuracy can be improved by determining the length of
your pace. Before going out into the
field, measure out a fixed distance on level ground with a measuring tape (at
least 50 meters). Pace this distance
with a natural stride, counting your paces as you go. Then divide the distance by the number of paces to determine the
length of each individual pace. This
will provide a multiplication factor for converting paced distances to
meters.
Distances on prehistoric sites should always be measured
in meters. The English measurement
system can be used for the historic components of multicomponent sites, but the
overall site dimensions should still be taken in meters (OHP 1995:12). Some of the other measurement methods
mentioned above are definitely more accurate than pacing, but the extra time,
effort, and expense is not typically warranted for most site recording
purposes. For documenting some
important finds, however, a taped measurement should be considered.
Direction and Declination
Directions are determined by measuring a bearing or
azimuth with a compass. A bearing is
the direction or degree reading from one object to another. As with measurements of distance, directions
will also be measured from the site datum.
Prior to beginning fieldwork, another important but sometimes overlooked
step is to set the declination on your compass. Declination is the result of the discrepancy between the location
of the Magnetic North Pole and the geographic North Pole or pole of rotation of
the Earth. This angle varies depending
on your location. Whenever you are using a compass in conjunction with a USGS
map, an adjustment should be made to allow for this discrepancy. The declination diagram along the lower
margin of USGS maps will indicate the approximate declination angle for a
particular area. On many compasses the
dial can be adjusted to compensate for declination. The compass instructions should explain how to make this
adjustment.
Survey
The first step in recording an archaeological site is to
conduct an intensive survey of the site area and the immediate surroundings to
determine the full extent of the site and its constituents. A visual inspection of the entire ground
surface should be carried out. In areas
with limited ground surface visibility such as forests with heavy duff
accumulation, or areas with other types of vegetative cover, periodic surface
exposures should be employed in order to search for cultural materials. The level of survey intensity should be more
thorough than typically employed for the entire project area, and should result
in the identification of all surface features within the site and a sampling of
artifacts that will provide a characterization of the site type. As the survey of the site area is being
carried out, each individual find should be marked with flagging and given a
specific designation. For example, each feature should be given a sequential
number as it is encountered, with the flag labeled accordingly. The location of important artifacts should
also be marked with flagging. Small artifacts
can sometimes be difficult to relocate if they are not marked when initially
observed. These flags will help to
visualize the full extent of the site area and will be useful markers during
the site mapping process. The flags
should be removed when the site recording fieldwork has been completed.
Boundaries
One of the principal results of the site area survey
should be the identification and designation of site boundaries. The establishment of the site boundary is an
important consideration because it should encompass all of the resources that
contribute to the significance of a site.
The site boundary has legal and management implications as it specifies
the area that will be subject to regulatory control (Seifert 1995:1). The designation of the site boundary is a
judgment that will be based on a number of criteria. The National Register
Bulletin (1997:56-57) lists the following techniques for obtaining evidence to
justify site boundaries:
1.
Surface observations of
site features and cultural constituents.
2.
Subsurface observations in
areas of previous ground disturbance.
3.
Observations of topography
and other natural features.
4.
Observations of impacts
and alterations that may have affected the integrity of the site area.
5.
The study of background
information such as ethnographic accounts and historic documents such as maps
and journals.
The observed distribution of cultural features and
artifacts is the primary criterion for establishing the site boundary. Other factors that should be taken into
consideration include the adequacy of the survey coverage, the extent of
observational limitations, the physical characteristics of the site, the
environmental setting, geographic features, and site integrity. Some boundaries can be determined by the
direct observation of surface remains, but others must be identified on the
basis of background research. Many of
the constituents of archaeological sites are not easily recognized in the
course of surface survey. In fact, in
many cases most of the cultural materials at a site are not exposed on the
surface at all. These circumstances
need to be taken into consideration when establishing site boundaries. An absolute boundary definition is often not
achievable. The designation of a site
boundary usually represents a compromise between surface observations,
characteristics of the physiographic setting, and the most reasonable
expectations as to the full extent of the site area. Boundaries should include surrounding land that contributes to
the significance of a site by providing an integrity of setting. Consideration should be given to the extent
of the landform that contains the site.
Features of the landscape may be included when they contribute to the
natural setting of the site. Natural
features such as a shoreline, terrace edge, tree line, or erosional scar, when
they serve to delimit a site, can serve as justifiable boundaries. Geographic features such as contour lines,
or section lines on USGS maps can also be used to define boundaries of large
sites (Seifert 1995:1-3). Observations of topographic and other natural
features can provide evidence for logical and defendable boundaries
(1995:52). The boundary should define
the limits of the site and include all of the elements, both cultural and
natural, that contribute to its significance. The techniques used to establish
the site boundary will be described on the final site record form.
When the site boundary has been determined, a flag line
can be placed around this perimeter.
Place the flags at frequent enough intervals so that the site will be
easily recognized during project operations.
Flagging available with labeling such as "Special Treatment
Zone" and "Equipment Exclusion Zone" is often used for marking
site boundaries. Site boundary flagging
can be one of the most effective site protection measures. Remove the flags at the conclusion of
project operations so that attention is not drawn to vulnerable resources in
the future.
Description
Once the extent and content of a site has been
ascertained, a description of the site can be prepared. The site description provides a summary of
the components of the site including the physical characteristics, appearance,
site type, size, condition, physiographic and environmental setting, and a list
of the cultural constituents. Detailed
specifications for the development of site descriptions are provided in the OHP
Instructions (1995:6-7). An important
part of the site description is an enumeration of the features that may be
present within the site. A feature can
be defined as a large stationary object such as a bedrock mortar, house pit,
petroglyph panel, structural remains, or an association of portable artifacts
such as a lithic concentration or trash scatter. Each feature should be given a specific designation such as a
sequential number as they are identified.
Describe the features in terms of type, important characteristics and
materials, associated artifacts, and measure them for length, width, and
height. Include a summary of the
cultural constituents in the site description. Cultural constituents is the
term used to refer to any cultural materials found on a site such as artifacts,
ecofacts, and other residues of human activity that are not associated with a
specific feature (OHP 1995:13).
Describe these materials in terms of material types and quantities of
items present such as numbers of lithic waste flakes or historic metal
cans. Make special note of any
temporally diagnostic forms. In
general, try to make the site description as complete and detailed as possible,
particularly if only a Primary Record is being prepared.
Datum
The datum is a permanently fixed control point from
which the measurements of the site will be taken (Heizer 1953:13; Joukowsky
1980:115). This datum will be the
central reference point for mapping the site and will be used to tie the site
into the outside world by locating its position in relation to a larger
geographic context. The datum will also
serve as a reference point for the future identification of the site and as the
terminal point for directions to guide future workers back to the location
(Heizer and Graham 1967:34; Napton and Greathouse 1997:202-204).
Establish a site datum in a strategic location,
preferably near the center of the site, with good visibility of the surrounding
site area if possible. The datum should
be a relatively permanent object such as a prominent natural or cultural
feature of the site. A large rock, or
boulder, a bench mark or survey monument, or the corner of an existing
structure can make a good datum. A
distinctive tree or stump can serve as a datum, and while these may not be the
most desirable, sometimes they can be the only recognizable feature within a
site. If a tree is selected as the
datum, make sure that it is retained during any timber harvest operations. Datum points are sometimes marked with a
metal tag or other marker for future identification.
One method used by archaeologists is to install a
permanent datum point by placing a metal rod or fence post in the ground. This type of datum should be readily
identifiable, but not so conspicuous that it defaces the site or attracts undue
attention (Napton and Greathouse 1997:204,208). A description of the datum must be included on the site record
and should be explicit enough in detail, measurements, and location to allow
future researchers to relocate this important point. Clearly label the datum on the Site Map (See Figure 1, Map
Symbols). If you are recording a very
large site, or a site with restricted line-of-sight visibility, it may be
helpful to establish more than one datum. Additional datum points should be
designated sequentially, and their locations specified in relation to the
primary datum by distances and bearings (Heizer and Graham 1967:34).
Coordinates
Once the site datum has been established, the next step
in the site recording process is to compile a list of coordinates to the
individual finds. These coordinates
will consist of directions and distances measured from the site datum. As previously discussed, the directions can
be determined by measuring bearings with a compass and the distances can be
measured by pacing. Starting from the
site datum, compile a list of direction and distance measurements to the
components of the site that were flagged during the site area survey. Bearing measurements are obtained by
sighting across the body of the compass towards a specific object, then turning
the dial until the orienting arrow is aligned with the magnetic needle. The bearing to the specific object is the
degree reading on the compass dial indicated by the index pointer. Pace the distance to the specific object and
then make note of these distance and bearing measurements. Repeat this process until the various
components of the site have been measured including cultural features, artifacts,
prominent landscape features, and the site boundary. It is a good idea to measure distances to at least four points on
the site boundary. These distances can
be at the cardinal directions or at points that provide the best indication of
the overall extent of the site area.
The flags placed at the individual finds and along the site boundary
during the site area survey should serve as helpful visual references in
compiling these measurements. Other
important coordinates that should be taken are to the nearest permanent water
source and fixed reference points on the USGS quadrangle map. Make sure that coordinates are taken to
several permanent features of the surrounding landscape. If the datum should become obscured or
destroyed for any reason, this will enable future researchers to reconstruct
its approximate location. This list of
coordinates will be used later to construct the Site Map.
Location
One of the most critically important operations in any
site recording effort is the accurate plotting of the site location on the USGS
quadrangle map. One of the best methods
for accomplishing this task is to measure a distance and bearing from the site
datum to a recognizable fixed reference point on the USGS map. Established survey points such as bench
marks or section corner monuments can sometimes be found in the vicinity of
sites. If this type of survey marker can be found within a reasonable distance,
this makes an excellent reference point for locating the site (Napton and
Greathouse 1997:208). Other types of
reference points that can be employed include road junctions, modern
structures, stream confluences, closed contour summits, and other recognizable
landscape features. If possible, take
measurements to more than one reference point.
These coordinates will allow you to physically construct the precise
location and configuration of the site area directly on the USGS map. The UTM calculator can be used to scale
measured distances directly onto these maps.
If the site is not within a measurable distance to a recognizable
reference point, another method to locate the site is known as
triangulation. Take bearing
measurements to at least two or more distant points that can be seen from the
site area such as mountain peaks or recognizable cultural objects. Draw these bearing lines on the USGS map
through the identified points. Where
these lines intersect should be the approximate location of the site. While this method is much less accurate than
the preceding one, in some cases it can be the only means available. Once you have accurately plotted your site
on the USGS map, the locational information that needs to be included on the
site record form can be determined directly from the map in the office. It is unnecessary to spend time in the field
making these calculations.
With the proliferation of Global Positioning System
(GPS) units, many people are now using this system to determine locational
coordinates. While this is an effective
means of acquiring locational data, a caution is in order. If a site location is plotted based on GPS
coordinates, this location should be ground-truthed to make sure that the map
plot corresponds with the actual physical setting of the site. Until the USGS maps have been corrected to
the GPS coordinates, a map plot based solely on GPS coordinates could provide a
false impression of the geographic context of a site.
Another valuable form of locational information consists
of directions. From a well-known
geographic location, make note of turning directions and mileage distances
along specific travel routes leading to the site. This can be accomplished either in route to, or returning from
the site. This information can later be composed into a directional narrative
that will serve to guide others to the site.
Artifacts
During the site area survey, place flags at the location
of important artifacts. Number each
artifact sequentially as it is identified and label the flag accordingly. Artifacts are considered important that have
temporally diagnostic characteristics or if they will help to classify the site
type. If time permits, it is highly
desirable to provide illustrations of individual artifacts. This is particularly important for items
such as diagnostic projectile points and lithic formed tools. Even simple outline drawings of artifacts
can provide valuable information for interpreting a site. An artifact illustration can be quickly
drafted by simply placing the artifact on a sheet of paper and tracing around
the edge. Examples of simple artifact drawings are included in the attached
site record.
Environment
Although much of the environmental information that was
formerly required on site records is now considered optional, this can still
provide an important contribution to a complete site record. Ground surface
visibility conditions should be described, as well as any other factors that
may have affected the accurate recording of the site. Describe the current condition of the site with observations of
disturbances or impacts that may be diminishing the integrity of the site. Include a description of the closest natural
source of fresh water and measure a distance and direction from the site
datum. Compile a list of plants in the
vicinity of the site that can later be used to determine the vegetation
community. Make note of the color,
texture, and consistency of the soil within the site area. Pay particular attention to any indications
of cultural modifications to the soil that may be an indication of a midden
deposit. Any rock outcrops or other
indications of the local geology should also be noted. The physiographic setting of the site can be
described in terms of the landform, slope, aspect, and exposure.
Photography
Photographs of a site are considered an integral
component of a complete site record.
Make an effort to obtain good overviews of the site area as well as
general views of the surrounding terrain. Useful subjects for photographs can
also include the site datum, any recognizable features, and important
artifacts. If a record is being
prepared for a building, structure, or object, an original black-and- white
print must be attached to the Primary Record.
Make note of each photograph as it is taken, and include the frame
number, time of day, description, and direction of the view.
Site Name
Every site that is going to be recorded must have a
specific designation. Archaeological
sites are often referred to by site numbers, but may also be given site
names. During the initial fieldwork,
any convenient designation can be used (Heizer 1953:3). A common archaeological practice is to
number sites sequentially as they are located during the course of a survey for
a particular project. This practice can, however, lead to a certain amount of
ambiguity and confusion in the future. Therefore, it can be very helpful to assign
specific names to each site. One small
reward of conducting archaeological work is the naming of your discoveries
(Thomas 1998:241). Even if a site is
well known to the landowner, locals, or other persons, if it has not been
previously recorded, you are the scientific discoverer and have the right to
name it. Sites are often given a local
name or the name of some geographic feature nearby (Hole and Heizer
1973:177). The site name should be
derived from some aspect of the cultural significance, current ownership,
location, or geographic features of the site (National Register Bulletin
1997:8). Sites are often named after
property owners, prominent landmarks, or a feature of the site. Geographic terms are preferred since they
are unlikely to change in the near future.
Sites are sometimes given invented names based on the personal
impressions or experiences of the recorder.
Overly complex and lengthy designations, or names which offer unfounded
interpretations of the site should be avoided.
A good justification for naming sites is that they are much easier to
refer to in print. If many sites are
discussed in a report, site names are much easier to relate to than site
numbers (Sanger and Meighan 1990:77).
Field Recording
Checklist
In the course of my own site recording experiences, I
have found that it can be constructive to refer to a site recording
checklist. While working through the
site recording process, particularly when nearing completion, it can be helpful
to review this checklist to make sure that all of the necessary information has
been acquired. It can be very
frustrating to return from a site in a remote area, or begin preparing your
final site record sometime after the initial fieldwork, and find that some
critical piece of information was overlooked. This checklist is organized to
follow the sequence of categories on the site recording forms.
Primary Record:
1.
Site designation.
2.
Plot the location on the
USGS map.
3.
Compile a mileage log.
4.
Prepare a site
description.
5.
List the people contributing
to the recording effort.
6.
Date of the field
recording.
Archaeological Site Record:
1.
Establish a site datum
(measure and describe).
2.
Describe ground surface
visibility conditions.
3.
Designate features
(describe, measure, and take a distance and bearing to each).
4.
Designate individual
artifacts (describe, measure, and take a distance and bearing to each). Quantify material types.
5.
Describe the site
condition and list disturbances.
6.
Take a distance and
bearing to the closest fresh water source.
7.
Prepare the Site Map. Include the site boundary, features,
artifacts, surrounding terrain, legend, scale, and north arrow.
8.
Compile a list of plants.
9.
Note landform, slope, aspect, exposure, soils, and geology.
10. Take photographs.
Note frame number, time, description, and direction of view.
Site Maps
Preparing an accurate Site Map is a vital part of the
site recording process. The Site Map
plays a crucial role in defining the extent of the site area, locating
individual finds within the site, and providing information towards site
interpretation. A map can be defined as
a conventionalized picture of a portion of the landscape as seen from above,
but represents what is known about an area rather than what can actually be
seen. The cartographer is both
scientist and artist, and must omit or include information according to the
scale and purpose of the map (Raisz 1948).
Consequently, a map should be considered a generalization of reality
intended to assist in the visualization of archaeological information. Maps prepared specifically to be included in
Archaeological Site Records are often called sketch maps, and in the past were
little more than hastily drawn sketches.
It is becoming increasingly important that site maps conform to basic
cartographic principles. Satisfactory site maps can be drafted in the field
using simple techniques and basic equipment with a minimum of time and
effort. These maps document the results
of archaeological investigations, and form an important part of the
archaeological record (Napton and Greathouse 1997:177-234). Archaeological Site Records must be
accompanied by detailed Sketch Maps (OHP 1995:12). Site mapping skills are, therefore, a fundamental prerequisite
for conducting archaeological site recording.
This section is intended to provide basic techniques for drafting site
maps that will fulfill the need for the graphic documentation of archaeological
sites.
While authors often profess the importance of preparing
archaeological site maps (Armstrong 1985; Dillon 1982; Whitley 1982),
information directly relevant to drafting a Site Map is not generally
provided. Archaeological textbooks and
manuals usually cover site maps (Heizer 1953:13-22; Heizer and Graham
1967:31-40; Hole and Heizer 1973:190-193; Joukowsky 1980:65-131), but these
discussions are oriented towards mapping sites in preparation for
excavation. The primary function of
these types of maps is to show the configuration of the site before excavation
and to plot the location of units and subsurface features. These mapping techniques are not
particularly applicable to the preparation of a site record Site Map. One of the few presentations that recognizes
the importance of site maps is the chapter by Napton and Greathouse (Hester et
al. 1997:177-234) which offers a comprehensive treatment of various site
mapping techniques. Additional
information on site mapping can be found in Bryant and Holz (1966), National
Register Bulletin (1997:62), Sanger and Meighan (1990:81-85), and Thompson
(1989:37-45).
The methods of measurement and level of accuracy needed
to prepare an Archaeological Site Record have been previously discussed. These considerations also have important
implications for the preparation of site maps.
Recognition of your mapping needs and the required level of accuracy is
an important consideration in any mapping project. Decisions must be made with regard to the level of detail that
can be included on the map (Thompson 1989:37).
The precision of measurement is dependent on the subject and the scale
to which it will be drawn. The
limitations imposed by the reduction of mapping data to site record page size
will determine the level of accuracy that should be attempted. As mapping data are reduced in size, each
symbol on the map occupies a proportionally larger amount of space, therefore
accuracy becomes a function of the amount of detail that will fit on the
map. There comes a point where an
obsession with accuracy can be counterproductive. Regardless of the accuracy obtained
in the field, you will always be constrained by the limitations of final
draftsmanship (Whitley 1982:15-19).
Sophisticated surveying techniques are sometimes employed by
archaeologists (Joukowsky 1980:65-131; Leach 1994; Napton and Greathouse 1997:215-223)
but the accuracy obtained by these methods is unnecessary for the preparation
of typical site maps. There is no point
in taking measurements to a level of accuracy that cannot be shown on
small-scale drawings (Leach 1994:3).
The level of resolution that can be attained within the site record
format does not justify the use of complex and time consuming survey
techniques.
The Site Map should show the relationship of the site to
its physiographic setting, the location of site features and major site
constituents, and a site boundary. The
quality and usefulness of any map is predicated on the use of a few basic
cartographic principles (Bryant and Holz 1966:186). Some of these principles will be discussed as follows: Format,
Orientation, Scale, Coordinate System, Symbols, and Lettering. A good map should be enclosed within a
border or margin. A title block should
be included that contains the site name, number, name of the person drawing the
map, and date. The orientation of the
map should be indicated with a north arrow.
The scale of the map should be indicated with a bar scale in
meters. The map must be constructed
with a systematic method of location and measurement. The map should contain a legend explaining the symbols that have
been used. Lettering should be used to
label the features of the map. These
principles will be covered in more detail below and then a method for drafting
the map will be outlined.
Format
Before beginning any mapping project, it is important to
think ahead to the final format of the map. In order for the Site Map to be
conveniently incorporated into the site record, it is most practical to use
8½" by 11" paper. The
attractiveness of any map is greatly enhanced by a rectangular border or
margin. A heavy inked line ruled
½" to ¾" in from the edge of the paper forms a nice border. A title block should be enclosed within the
border, usually across the top of the page on site maps. The title block should include a title, the
pagination, name of the person drawing the map, the date of composition, the
site or resource name, and any identifying numbers such as the Primary Number,
Trinomial, HRI Number or agency designations.
A pre-formatted Sketch Map page is included with the OHP Instructions
(1995) as form DPR 523K.
Orientation
Cartographers exercise considerable variation in map
orientation, but the most natural and widely employed method is to have north
at the top of the page. USGS
topographic quadrangle maps are printed so that true north is at the top of the
sheet. Since site records must include
a Location Map consisting of a copy of the USGS map, it is a good idea to
construct site maps with this same orientation. Maintaining consistency in orientation between the different maps
helps to avoid confusion when reading these maps in the field. The orientation
on all maps must be indicated by a north arrow. The north arrow must specify whether it represents true north
(TN) or magnetic north (MN), and must be labeled accordingly. If your compass has been adjusted for
declination, true north will be the correct designation.
Scale
One of the first steps in preparing a Site Map is
determining the scale at which the map will be drawn. Scale can be defined as the proportional relationship or ratio
between the map size and the area that is represented (Raisz 1948:54). The scale will indicate the standard of
measurement that is being used so that the relative size of elements on the map
can be determined. Once the extent of
the site area has been determined, make an estimate of the overall dimensions
of the site, i.e. length and width.
Then determine an appropriate scale that will allow you to fit the site
within the margins of the Site Map page.
Be sure to allow sufficient room to show important surrounding
environmental features and a legend. Triangular rulers that are scaled in
metric increments and have several different proportional ratios are extremely
helpful in choosing a scale. When an
acceptable scale has been selected, it should be indicated on the map with a
bar scale. The use of a bar scale will
insure that the correct proportional relationship between the elements of the
map and the scale will be maintained if the size of the map is changed. If a description or ratio is used, the scale
will no longer be valid if the map is reduced or enlarged (Armstrong 1985:45).
Coordinate System
The most fundamental principle of cartography is the
establishment of a coordinate system to which each point on the map can be
related (Raisz 1948:57). The procedure
of site mapping described here is known as the radial method (Joukowsky
1980:95; Napton and Greathouse 1997:204-205).
This method consists of plotting a series of measured distances and
directions from a specified control point known as the site datum. If this point in the site recording process
has been reached, a site datum will have been established and a list of
coordinates compiled. These coordinates
can now be used to construct a Site Map.
A series of rays will be drawn extending out from the datum to the
various measured points. The distance
and bearing measurements will be entered along these rays which end in arrows
indicating the direction of the compass sighting (Thompson 1989:38).
Symbols
Cartographic symbols are conventional, standardized
representations of natural and cultural features used to compose maps (Napton
and Greathouse 1997:183). Almost every
feature on a map can be represented by a symbol. Good symbols should be small, distinct, easy to draw, and provide
the viewer with a visual impression of the feature they represent (Armstrong
1985:43; Raisz 1948:97). Symbols should not depict the features they represent
as if they were viewed from an oblique angle. The use of symbols helps to
reduce descriptive labeling that can detract from the clarity and effectiveness
of a map. There is presently no
universal set of archaeological mapping symbols, probably because there are so
many different types of cultural and natural features (Napton and Greathouse
1997:231). Archaeologists working in
different areas tend to adhere to different local traditions of graphic
expression (Armstrong 1985:43). Symbols
should be standardized and used consistently throughout any series of maps
(Bryant and Holz 1966:197). Some of the
most standard map symbols are those used on USGS maps. Symbols can be grouped in four major
categories: cultural features, topography, hydrology, and vegetation (Raisz
1948:97). A list of map symbols for use
on archaeological site maps has been developed for this manual (See Figure 1
:Map Symbols). This list of symbols should only be
considered as
suggestions that can be adapted and modified to meet specific needs. Make sure that the symbols selected for each
feature on the map are unique and distinctive enough so that different symbols
will not be confused with one another.
The symbols that are ultimately chosen for use must be listed and
explained in a legend. The legend
should be a rectangular box set off from the map area by a border. It can be located in a portion of the map
surface that has not been utilized for the site area or important environmental
details. The symbol explanations should
be kept as brief as possible, but adequate to convey an accurate definition of
the symbol.
Lettering
