POTTERY AND PORCELAIN

The Korean people began using earthenware kneaded from clay and fired at low temperatures during the Neolithic period. These vessels were generally used to store food, a necessity that arose when mankind advanced from gathering and hunting to tilling the soil and raising domestic animals. Comb-pattern earthenware has been excavated in almost every part of the Korean peninsula, principally from sites along the coasts and the banks of major rivers. Most of the earthenware from this period was shaped by building strips of clay one on top of another. In later periods, pigments were used for decoration.

In the Three Kingdoms period, this earthenware was fired at high temperatures. Of the Three Kingdoms, Silla and Kaya produced the highest quality earthenware fired at temperatures exceeding 1,200C. The surface of this earthenware was gray and very hard. A variety of shapes and designs were created, indicating that the vessels may have been used for ritual or ceremonial purposes.

The Unified Silla period was marked by a transition from earthenware to porcelain. Earthenware was no longer used for burial accessories and was made solely for daily use. Shapes became softer and more curved, and there was a shift toward floral designs.

The Unified Silla saw a new interest in earthenware for practical uses. The impractical pedestal cups and high stands characteristic of the Three Kingdoms era gave way to low feet, and flat bottoms replaced round bottoms. At the same time, floral patterns came to replace patterns carved in intaglio, and new glazes were developed: ashglazes fired at high temperatures, and lead-glazes fired at low temperatures.

Silla Celadon and Koryo Porcelain

Koreans learned of porcelain from celadons imported from China during the Six Dynasties period. Porcelain (both celadon and white porcelain) from the late Tang had been introduced to Korea since the 9th century together with the techniques for producing early celadon and coarse green celadon. In the first part of the 9th century, celadon was produced at important coastal sites that had established ties with the Yuezhou kilns of Zhejiang in China This technique spread to nearby areas, and coarse green celadon was fired in kilns scattered along the eastern and southern coasts of Korea from the latter half of the tenth to the 11th century

Kilns producing celadon of the earlier green type were located in Kangjin County in South Cholla Province. The production of true celadon in the Kangjin area beginning in the mid-ninth century was instigated by the maritime activities of Chang Po-go, the leading maritime trader of Northeast Asia

These kilns developed under government control and direction, which had systemized the influence from China's kilns. Koryo ceramics were perfected during the 10th and 11th centuries, a transitional period during which Chinese influence on shapes and designs gradually diminished and Korean ceramicists developed their own style.

Plain celadons reached their height during the first half of the 12th century. Firing in a reducing atmosphere was the key to obtaining the celadon color. This color had already become distinctive during the second half of the 11th century and attained its peak in the first half of the 12th century

This refinement advanced still further by the middle of the 12th century as glazes became semi-transparent and lighter, and the designs, incised or carved in relief, began to show more ordered development. Koryo potters also developed a new technique, known as sanggam, for delineating designs through inlaying. This technique reached its height in the middle of the 12th century While it was the most frequently used technique, other decorative techniques, such as painted celadon, celadon with raised patterns, painting in iron underglaze with or without raising white slip or inlaid designs, iron glazes, white porcelain with inlaid or painted iron designs, celadon painted with gold, celadon painted with copper underglazes, and porcelain with marbled designs also flourished during this period.

Koryo's celadon culture blossomed during the reigns of King Injong (r. 1122-1146) and his successor King Uijong (r. 114&1170) and continued to develop in spite of confusion in aristocratic society and political upheavaL Early in the 13th century, however, the Mongol invasion dealt a serious blow to the Koryo Period. From the reign of King Ch'ungyol (r. 12741308) onward, there were gradual changes in the shapes and designs of celadon and in the methods of firing, as elements of west Asian culture were introduced from the Yuan empire.

Koryo celadon and porcelain began to decline from the early 13th century. Inlaid celadon and plain celadon were the only ceramics to be produced continuously throughout this period. The degeneration that took place in the second half of the 14th century affected both the shapes and designs of this celadon and the methods used to fire them. This late Koryo celadon was replaced by puncb'ong during the Choson period.

Of all Koryo ceramics, celadon was the most commonly produced and the most refined A second flowering in Koryo celadon occurred in the unique inlaying techniques. Restrained, and yet clear and bright in its subtle jade color, Koryo celadon was unified in its well-articulated forms and the first in the world to produce bright red through the use of copper oxide underglaze on the surface of a vessel.

Choson Era Ceramics

Inferior inlaid celadon was produced at small kilns scattered throughout the country during the late Koryo and early Choson periods. These celadon vessels gradually developed into puncb'ong ware, stoneware glazed a transparent light greenish-white.

Puncb'ong and new white porcelain formed the mainstream of Choson ceramics until the 16th century. The newly centralized government undertook a nationwide survey of existing kilns, and an Office of Ceramics was established to administer these kilns. The state operated a central kiln as well as branch kilns near the capital and oversaw the work at provincial kilns scattered around the country.

According to Kyongguk Taejon (Grand Code of State Administration), the Choson court employed 380 potters at the state-run Saengwon (Office of Ceramics) and 99 artisans to supervise provincial kilns under the centralized system. The most important task of the provincial kilns was to supply ceramics to the royal household in Seoul and to satisfy the demands of local government offices.

Although puncb'ong and white porcelain are quite different in character and shape, they share their white color, puncb'ong being coated white and porcelain being made from white clay. We could say puncb'ong reached its height when so much slip was used the surface actually became white.

Since puncb'ong had developed from Koryo celadon, its shapes tended to resemble the latter. That is, they were magnanimous and humorous while displaying bold and graceful lines. A number of decorative techniques were used to produce puncb'ong: inlaying; stamping; sgraff iato; outlines incised through white slip; underglazing with iron; brushed-on slip; and dipping in white slip. In many cases, a combination of these techniques was used. Inlaid designs appeared on piecc-s produced in all parts of the country during the first part of the Choson period. These pieces were forceful and filled with vigor. Vessels from the mid-lSth century, decorated with inlaid designs, were fresh and bold Stamped designs were most actively developed in the southeast region. The stamping was done with great precision, the pale green imparting a feeling of freshness on the white clay. The art of sgraffiato, a technique developed in the southwest, and incising with white slip produced unrestrained, magnanimous results. The technique of iron underglazing allowed for bold lines like those found in paintings.

White porcelain from the early period was made in a variety of shapes and is imbued with a soft nobility Their color reminds one of snow glistening in the sunlight at dawn. Pure white porcelain, without any decorations, was most highly valued during the Choson

period. This high regard for white porcelain actually dates back to the Koryo period when potters had little success producing white wares of high quality With the introduction of Mohammedan blue during the reign of King Sejong (r. 1418-1450), blue and white porcelains (ch'onghwapaekMa) were produced in limited numbers.

Choson ceramics suffered greatly as a result of the Japanese invasions stretching from 1592 to 1598. Many competent potters were kidnapped toJapan where they made a decisive contribution to the production of porcelain and the general development of Japanese ceramics. The Japanese aggression also marked the turning point in Choson era ceramics. Puncb'ong disappeared along with the last vestiges of Koryo celadon culture

Nevertheless, the shape of porcelain and the techniques used to produce it remained unchanged through the middle of the 17th century when porcelain glazes became white and more transparent, and designs grew simpler. The roundness of vessels was reduced to achieve a more angular effect. The boldness and vitality of form found in large pots and jars is particularly striking. Smaller objects, such as brush stands and water droppers used in calligraphy were also made in a variety of intriguing shapes.

It was also during this period that white porcelain ware was first used in the ancestral rites in the homes of commoners. Its general use had been prohibited from 1466 by a court order which restricted manufacturing to pieces specially ordered by the royal household. The pure white clay was coated with a clear glaze that was far less blue in comparison to ceramics of early periods. Designs created with iron underglaze still existed but they soon disappeared, except for some chrysanthemum designs that were produced until the early 18th century

The final period of Choson ceramics covers the span between King Yongio's reign in the mid-18th century to the end of the 19th century This period was characterized by remarkable developments in shape and design, which would have continued to unprecedented heights if Japanese imperialist aggression had not intervened.

This period was, however, a time of rapid change. In 1752, the official ceramics factory at Punwon was moved to a site along the Han River since most of the wood fuel and timber bound for Seoul traveled along this route. As a result, the government kiln no longer needed to move from place to place in search of easy access of fuel and other materials. By 1883, however, the factory proved too great a burden on state revenues and was placed under private management. By the 1890s, the factory was incapable of producing anything.

The cessation of state support and the employment of Japanese craftsmen as well as the introduction of alien methods, such as transfer printing, caused a rapid deterioration of time-honored traditions in porcelain manufacture. The import of cheap Japanese pottery mass-produced in factories in the Kyushu area, further accelerated the decline of the Korean ceramics industry

White porcelains from the final period.of Choson appear bluer than those of the earlier period because they were coated with a bluish glaze. The walls became thicker and more stable, and the bodies of the vessels were more voluminous. Copper and iron underglaze were often employed simultaneously, and designs were carved in relief, and, on rare occasions, incised. Generally speaking, function began to take precedence over beauty