THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE IN KOREA

Science and Technology in Ancient Times

Archeological evidence reveals a number of scientific developments by ancient tribes during the paleolithic period. One of the most notable advancements was the development of bronze. Scholars have found that the bronze developed during the ancient period as well as that of later periods of Korean history was quite different from that of China or Japan. Korean bronze played a major role in the development of daggers, spears and other utensils, as well as the celebrated invention of moveable metal type by Koreans in later periods. Bronze also played an important role in the production of Korea's unique bells used in Buddhist temples and as timepieces in public streets.

Historical records indicate movable metal type was first used in 1234. The first book printed no longer exists, but in 1972, a copy of a Buddhist scripture printed with movable type in 1377 was discovered in the library of the College de France. This artifact not only reflects the heights achieved in Korea's early bronze technology but also indicates the advanced levels reached in the early use of woc,d block prints. It is believed that Koreans in Unified Silla were the first to invent wood block printing. Examples of wood block prints of Buddhist scriptures date back as far as the early 8th century Buddhism also played a dominant role in the lives of Koreans during the Koryo period when all existing texts were collected on a series of more than 80, 000 wood blocks now housed at Haeinsa Temple.

Bronze technology in ancient Korea also reveals much about the Japanese adoption of Korean science and technology through the ages. While this is seldom discussed in the traditional historiography of Korea, there is an abundance of materials on the topic in the Nibstn sbstki, a Japanese history compiled in the early 8th century According to these Japanese records, Chinese knowledge and technology, including Chinese characters and the mapr classics, such as the Confucian Analects, were introduced to theJapanese by Korean scholars visiting Japan. In 554, Paekche sent doctors, herb and calendar specialists, and diviners to Japan, and in 602, Kwalluk, a Paekche monk, was dispatched to Japan to deliver books on astronomy calendar-making, geography and divination, and to train Japanese students.

Numerous records, such as these, indicate that almost all aspects of ancient science and technology in the Nara and Heian periods were brought to Japan by Koreans. Paper and writing ink, and flour mill technology were just some of the practical technologies introduced from Korea, and, with the rise of Buddhism in Japan, all the technologies associated with Buddhist architecture and bell-making were obtained from Korean scholars and technicians. Ch'Imsongdaeand Astronomy During the Silla Period.

Ch'omsongdae and Astronomy During the Silla Period

One of the best known artifacts of Korea's history of science and technology is Cb'omsongdae, a 9-meter high observatory built in 633. The exact function of the tower is not knc,wn today; however, we can assume that it served as an astronomical tower for heavenly observations.

The tower is rich in symbolism, both in the number of stones and the number of layers used. A total of 360 stones were arranged in 27 layers. Certainly the number of stones must have been intended to symbolize the number of days in a year. But what about the 27 layers? Perhaps they symbolize the fact that then reigning

Queen Sundok was the 27th monarch in the Silla Dynasty. The tower has a window facing south with 12 layers of stones above and below it. Could the number 12 represent the number of months in a year?

The tower's symbolism does not end there. The tower has 28 or even 29 layers of stones, depending on how we count them. The traditional oriental zodiac is divided into 28 constellations, and a month by the lunar calendar has 29 days. aearly the people of Silla were incorporating the basic concepts of astronomy and the calendar into the construction of the observatory.

Traditional Conceptions of Nature, Geomancy and Euturology

The ancient Korean people's interest in science and technology continued throughout Korean history. The Samguk sagi (Tbe History of tbe Tbree Kingdoms written by Koryo scholar Kim Pu-sik in 1145), for instance, contains numerous references to natural phenomena. The Koryosa (Tbe History of tbe Koryo Kingdom compiled by Cboson era scholars in 1451) includes some 6,500 references, and according to my own compilations, the Sillok (Tbe Veritable Records of tbe Kingdom) contain around 8,000 references to natural phenomena during the first 100 years of the dynasty.

These references cover a number of areas, although references to astronomical, or gheavenly," phenomena are the most common. During this period, the traditional belief system was based on the conception that heaven serves as a mirror for earthly government and politics. Any phenomena, eg. solar eclipses or stars visible during the day, were thought to infringe on the normal brightness of the sun and were thus considered a sign that the throne was in danger. In general, these natural phenomena were gportents" on the state of earthly politics.

Koreans were also concerned with geomancy as it related to daily life and in the placement of ancestral burial sites. The legendary founder of Korean geomancy was a Buddhist monk named Toson (827-898) who was active in the late Unified Silla period. Legend has it that it was Toson who prophesied the rise of a new dynasty Koryo, under the leadership of Wang Kon. Geomancy actually existed long before this in the early Three Kingdoms period, but it came to play a dominant role in the daily lives of the Korean people and in national politics from Koryo onward. Throughout the Koryo period, there were debates over the relocation of the capitaL These debates often escalated into major revolts such as Master Myoch'ong's rebeLlion in the 12th century.

King Sejong (r. 1412-1450), the fourth monarch of the Choson Kingdom, reigned over a number of important developments in the fields of science and technology Perhaps the most illustrious accomplishments were the invention of many ingenious instruments of astronomy and horology as described in Tbe Hall of Heavenly Records, compiled by Joseph Needham and other scholars (Cambridge University Press, 1986). Among these inventions were a self-striking water-clock and a variety of sundials.

According to the Samguk sdgi, a formal government office in charge of water-clocks was established in the 8th century. However, there are no records of the clocks actually produced during the Three Kingdoms or Koryo period. Immediately after the fall of the Koryo Kingdom in 1392, the Choson Kingdom initiated the development of a new water-clock in the new capital of Seoul. The first water-clock was made in 1398 under the reign of the dynastic founder, King Taejo. Although we do not have much specific data about the clock, it appears to have been built together with a large bell which was rung 28 times to announce curfew each night and 33 times at daybreak.

King Sejong's water-clock, built in 1434, was the first self-striking clock. The chief engineer on the project, Chang Yong-sil, later developed an even more complicated water-dock with additional astronomical devices. King Sejong also built a Royal Observatory in the main palace in Seoul. He arranged a series of astronomical and horological devices around Kyonghoeru Pond in Kyongbok Palace, including a simplified armillary sphere, the self-striking clock, a "jade clock," and a 4(}foot high bronze gnomon to measure the exact altitude of the sun.

It was also during Sejong's reign that the rain gauge was invented, providing the world's first exact measurements of rain.

At least four kinds of sundials were invented under King Sejong, the most distinguished being the sun-dial shaped like a bowl. None of the original sundials have survived, but we have many specimens produced from the 17th century onward.

The reign of King Sejong is also remembered for the development of bangul, the Korean alphabet, and the advancement and Koreanization of herbal medicine. Important advances were also recorded in printing and the production of gunpowder.

The apex of astronomical and calendarial advances made under King Sejong was the 1442 compilation of a Korean version of the traditional calendarial sciences in the Ch'ilchongsan (On the Cakulations of the Set)en Luminaries). This work made it possible for scientists to calculate and accurately predict all the major heavenly phenomena, such as solar eclipses and other stellar movements.

Scientific Developments During the Mid-Choson Period

One of the most illustrious episodes in the history of Korean technology is the development of the ironclad turtle boat used to repel theJapanese Hideyoshi invasions from 1592 to 1598. The boats, covered with iron spikes to prevent aggressors from boarding, were used to great effect under the brilliant leadership of Admiral Yi Sun-sin.

It was also during this same period that HoJun (1546-1615), a practitioner of Oriental medicine, compiled his masterpiece Tongui pogam (A Mirror of Korean Medicine), published in 1613. The efforts to Koreanize the Chinese medical practices that had previously dominated Korea began in the late Koryo period with a succession of medical books. The Hyangyak c1Nipsong-bang (The Compendia of Korean Pharmacopeia), published in 1433, was perhaps the most celebrated of these books.

Encounters with Western Science

The Korean people's first encounters with Western science were quite different from those of the Chinese or Japanese. Since Korea was located north of the Westerners' routes to China, Koreans had only indirect contact with the West, prior to the opening of the country in 1876, whereas the Chinese and Japanese had many opportunities to learn directly from Western missionaries who visited their countries from the 17th centuries onward.

On occasion, shipwrecks did bring foreigners to Korea, but the "visitors" were usually Dutch sailors who had little to offer the Koreans intellectually It is generally agreed that the first meaningful contact with the West was Korean Ambassador Chong Tuwon's encounter with the Italian Jesuit Johannes Rodrigues in China in 1630. Chong returned from his sojourn in China with books on Western astronomy calendars and geography, a telescope, and a chime clock.

Crown Prince Sohyon also returned from China in 1644 with many Western items after having developed a close relationship with Adam Schall while he was in Beijing. Clearly Korean scholars were interested in things Western during this period. For instance, the Sirhak scholar Yi Ik (1682-1764) admitted the superiority of Western science and technology and suggested that Confucius would have embraced those ideas had they been available in his time.

Hong Taexyong (1731-1783) is best known for his theory of the rotating earth. In early 1766, he visited China as a member of the annual Korean mission and, during his stay there, had three interviews with foreign scholars at the Imperial Bureau of Astronomy. Some time after this trip, Hong wrote a long essay on natural philosophy called the Usan mundap. This comprehensive essay reflects the strong influence of Western science along with Taoist views of nature. Not only did Hong maintain his theory of a rotating earth, but he also proposed the concept of an infinite universe in which the earth occupies a meaningless position.

In the 19th century the influence of Western science became more pronounced. The voluminous writings of Ch'oe Han-gi (1803-1877) record the introduction of Western science from China in the early and mid-19th century.

The mechanical clock was another Western invention that attracted Korean attention during this period. Mechanical clocks were introduced from China and Japan, and many Koreans appear to have tried to improve upon their traditional timepieces using the Western devices. This was, however, the extent of modern scientific and technological introductions prior to the opening of the country to the West in 1876 since there were few direct contacts with the West prior to that time. Koreans were not behind because of a lack of effort; rather they suffered a geographical disadvantage compared to the Chinese or Japanese.