Kazakhstan
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Official Name: Republic of Kazakhstan |
Flag
The flag is composed of a sky blue background, representing the endless sky, and a gold sun with thirty-two rays soaring above a golden steppe eagle in the center; on the hoist side is a "national design" in gold. The flag of Kazakhstan was officially adopted on June 4, 1992.
Kazakhstan
Ethnic Kazakhs, a mix of Turkic and Mongol nomadic tribes who migrated into the region in the 13th century, were rarely united as a single nation. The area was conquered by Russia in the 18th century, and Kazakhstan became a Soviet Republic in 1936. During agricultural "Virgin Lands" program of the 1950s and 1960s, Soviet citizens were encouraged to help cultivate Kazakhstan's northern pastures. This influx of immigrants (mostly Russians, but also some other deported nationalities) skewed the ethnic mixture and enabled non-Kazakhhs to outnumber natives. Independence in 1991 caused many of these newcomers to emigrate.
Humans have inhabited present-day Kazakhstan since the Stone Age, generally pursuing the nomadic pastoralism for which the region's climate and terrain are best suited. The earliest well-documented state in the region was the Turkic Kaganate, which came into existence in the sixth century A.D. The Qarluqs, a confederation of Turkic tribes, established a state in what is now eastern Kazakhstan in 766. In the eighth and ninth centuries, portions of southern Kazakhstan were conquered by Arabs, who also introduced Islam. The Oghuz Turks controlled western Kazakhstan from the 9th through the 11th centuries. The Kimak and Qipchaq peoples, also of Turkic origin, controlled the east at roughly the same time.
The large central desert of Kazakhstan is still called Dasht-i-Qipchaq, or the Qipchaq Steppe. In the late 9th century, the Qarluq state was destroyed by invaders who established the large Qarakhanid state, which occupied a region known as Transoxania, the area north and east of the Oxus River (the present-day Syrdariya), extending into what is now Xinjiang, China. Beginning in the early 11th century, the Qarakhanids fought constantly among themselves and with the Seljuk Turks to the south. In the course of these conflicts, parts of present-day Kazakhstan shifted back and forth between the combatants. The Qarakhanids, who accepted Islam and the authority of the Arab Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad during their dominant period, were conquered in the 1130s by the Karakitai, a Turkic confederation from northern China. In the mid-twelfth century, the independent state of Khorazm (also seen as Khorezm or Khwarazm) along the Oxus River broke away from the weakening Karakitai, but the bulk of the Karakitai state lasted until the invasion of Chinggis (Genghis) Khan in 1219-21.
After the Mongol capture of the Karakitai state, Kazakhstan fell under the control of a succession of rulers of the Mongolian Golden Horde, the western branch of the Mongol Empire. (The horde, or zhuz , is the precursor of the present-day clan, which is still an important element of Kazakh society.) By the early fifteenth century, the ruling structure had split into several large groups known as khanates, including the Nogai Horde and the Uzbek Khanate. The present-day Kazakhs became a recognizable group in the mid-fifteenth century, when clan leaders broke away from Abul Khayr, leader of the Uzbeks, to seek their own territory in the lands of Semirech'ye, between the Chu and Talas Rivers in present-day southeastern Kazakhstan. The first Kazakh leader was Khan Kasym (r. 1511-23), who united the Kazakh tribes into one people. In the sixteenth century, when the Nogai Horde and Siberian khanates broke up, clans from each jurisdiction joined the Kazakhs. The Kazakhs subsequently separated into three new hordes: the Great Horde, which controlled Semirech'ye and southern Kazakhstan; the Middle Horde, which occupied north-central Kazakhstan; and the Lesser Horde, which occupied western Kazakhstan. Russian traders and soldiers began to appear on the northwestern edge of Kazakh territory in the seventeenth century, when Cossacks established the forts that later became the cities of Oral (Ural'sk) and Atyrau (Gur'yev). The Kazakhs began to resist Russian control almost as soon as it became complete. The first mass uprising was led by Khan Kene (Kenisary Kasimov) of the Middle Horde, whose followers fought the Russians between 1836 and 1847.
Khan Kene is now considered a Kazakh national hero. As in the other Central Asian republics, the preservation of indigenous cultural traditions and the local language was a difficult problem during the Soviet era. The years since 1991 have provided opportunities for greater cultural expression, but striking a balance between the Kazakh and Russian languages has posed a political dilemma for Kazakhstan's policy makers. Before the Russian conquest, the Kazakhs had a well-articulated culture based on their nomadic pastoral economy. Although Islam was introduced to most of the Kazakhs in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the religion was not fully assimilated until much later. As a result, it coexisted with earlier elements of shamanistic and animistic beliefs. Traditional Kazakh belief held that separate spirits inhabited and animated the earth, sky, water, and fire, as well as domestic animals. To this day, particularly honored guests in rural settings are treated to a feast of freshly killed lamb. Such guests are sometimes asked to bless the lamb and to ask its spirit for permission to partake of its flesh. Besides lamb, many other traditional foods retain symbolic value in Kazakh culture.
Current issues include: developing a cohesive national identity; expanding the development of the country's vast energy resources and exporting them to world markets; achieving a sustainable economic growth outside the oil, gas, and mining sectors; and strengthening relations with neighboring states and other foreign powers.
Information and maps above taken from Library of Congress Country Studies and the CIA World Fact Book. Unless otherwise specified, images sourced from Wikimedia Commons.
Kazakhstani Internet Sources
This section contains convenient starting points for exploring web sites related to Kazakhstan. To make this page easier to load and use, we generally have limited the list to those sites which contain substantial collections of links to information on these subjects. The views reflected on any web site linked below do not necessarily reflect the views of the Inner Asian and Uralic National Resource Center. We provide these links as a service to the public.
Amnesty International Report 2007: Kazakhstan documents human rights issues in the republic during 2006.
BBC Kazakh Service provides links to information on the country and an archive of the BBC's daily programming in Kazakh from 1996 - 2005.
CIA World Factbook: Kazakhstan provides a general country overview and statistical data from the CIA.
Internews: Kazakhstan is an arm of a multi-national, non-profit NGO promoting the development of independent media and training local journalists. General information on projects are in English, while the content of projects and reports are in Russian.
Akezhan Kazhegeldin's Homepage, site of the former prime minister and current opposition politician, provides links to nongovernmental news about Kazakh politics.
The Karavan newspaper maintains a page with some information on its activities and a lot of graphics. It is possible to read the newspaper in Russian if your browser and computer are capable.
Kazakhstan's Democratic Forces Forum (in Russian and English) contains links to newspaper and radio articles and speeches dealing with democracy and human rights in Kazakhstan.
Kazakhstan Travel Guide - InfoHub's collection of travel-related and other resources.
Law Library of Congress' Guide to Law Online: Kazakhstan prepared by the U.S. Law Library of Congress for the Global Legal Information Network (GLIN), is an annotated hypertext guide to sources of information worldwide on government and law available online without charge.
websiteThe official of the President of Kazakhstan has Russian and English versions providing information on science and education, Kazakh history, economy and culture, with e-mail addresses of various university contacts.
Panorama, a weekly Russian-language newspaper published in Kazakhstan.
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty Kazakh Service links to RFE/RL Reports, Weekday Magazine, Newsline and external reports related to Kazakhstan in English. Includes a link to RFE/RL's Kazakh language broadcast. Azattyq.org is the Kazakh langauge counterpart.
The U.S. State Department Human Rights Report 2006: Kazakhstan analyzes human rights practices in the country.
The World Bank Group in Kazakhstan, in English and Russian, lists World Bank projects in the country, economic indicators, World Bank publications and information for NGOs and small businesses.