S726 Seminar in Contemporary Public Address
Instructor: Robert Ivie
A. Time and Location: Wednesday, 6:30 p.m. - 9:00 p.m., Rm. 105
B. Office Hours: Monday & Wednesday, 1:30 - 3:00 p.m., and by appointment
C. Required Book and Assigned Readings
The single required book is Denise M. Bostdorff, The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1993).
The weekly assigned readings are indicated under each unit of instruction. A copy of each required reading, except those from the Bostdorff book, will be placed on reserve in Room 106. Selected texts of war speeches and related samples of discourse will be distributed in class.
A thorough reading of the assigned materials before each class period is essential to the success of the course, which is organized around a discussion format. You should prepare discussion points to bring to class and should take the initiative to raise these points throughout the course of each meeting.
D. Purpose of the Course
As a topical research seminar, the course is designed for each student to conduct research on the general topic of war rhetoric, especially contemporary American war rhetoric. As a seminar in contemporary public address, its emphasis is on American war rhetoric throughout the Cold War era and into the present post-Cold War period. The units of instruction are designed to cover, first, various approaches to the investigation of war rhetoric, followed by historical examples primarily of American war rhetoric as analyzed by rhetorical critics, and then an extended unit on the Cold War featuring studies of each president's discourse, including the rhetoric of the Korean and Vietnam wars. The final unit examines the post-Cold War rhetoric of the Bush and Clinton administrations, including treatment of the Persian Gulf war and the crises in Somalia and Bosnia. Other topics on war rhetoric (e.g., a historical study of American war rhetoric, or a study of war rhetoric in another country or culture) can be investigated in your research papers, but you should consult with me before selecting a project outside the immediate scope of contemporary American war rhetoric.
E. Major Assignments
1. Prospectus for Research Paper: approximately 10 pages plus endnotes or references; due in class on week 6 (October 5).
This paper counts as 20% of the course grade. Its purpose is to present a plan for a case study of war rhetoric, justifying the significance of the project and its relationship to previous scholarship on the topic, and explaining your research procedure--including the primary materials to be examined, the research question or thesis, your method of analysis, and how you expect to evaluate your findings. The paper must conform to current MLA or APA guidelines.
2. Written Examination: approximately 10 pages; due in class on week 11 (November 9).
This is a "take-home" examination consisting of two or three questions of the type one might be asked on a doctoral comprehensive examination. The questions will be distributed in class on November 2. Answers must be typed and turned in the following week. The examination counts as 30% of the course grade.
3. Research Paper: approximately 25 pages plus endnotes or references; due at 5:00 p.m. on the Monday of finals week (December 12).
This paper, based on your original research, should be written as an exercise in rhetorical criticism. It counts 50% of the course grade and will be evaluated for the clarity and significance of its thesis, depth and coherence of analysis and argument, use of primary materials, command of relevant literature, degree of originality and insight, and refinement of writing style. It must conform to current MLA or APA guidelines.
II. Units of Instruction
A. The Criticism of War Rhetoric: Alternative Approaches
WEEK 1: August 31
Bosmajian, Haig. "The Language of War," in The Language of Oppression. Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1974.
Campbell, Karlyn Kohrs and Kathleen Hall Jamieson. "War Rhetoric." In Deeds Done in Words: Presidential Rhetoric and the Genres of Governance. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1990.
Medhurst, Martin J. "Rhetoric and Cold War: A Strategic Approach." In Medhurst et al. Cold War Rhetoric: Strategy, Metaphor, and Ideology. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990.
Benjamin, James. "Rhetoric and the Performative Act of Declaring War," Presidential Studies Quarterly 21 (1991): 73-84.
WEEK 2: September 7
Ivie, Robert L. "Presidential Motives for War." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 60 (1974): 337-345.
Ivie, Robert L. "Images of Savagery in American Justifications for War." Communication Monographs 47 (1980): 279-294.
Ivie, Robert L. "Cold War Motives and the Rhetorical Metaphor: A Framework of Criticism." In Martin J. Medhurst et al., Cold War Rhetoric: Strategy, Metaphor, and Ideology. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990.
Wander, Philip. "The Rhetoric of American Foreign Policy." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 70 (1984): 339-361.
B. Historical Examples of War Rhetoric
WEEK 3: September 14
Reid, Ronald F. "New England Rhetoric and the French War, 1754-1760: A Case Study in the Rhetoric of War." Communication Monographs 43 (1976): 259-286.
Hatzenbuehler, Ronald L. and Robert L. Ivie, "Justifying the War of 1812: Toward a Model of Congressional Behavior in Early War Crises." Social Science History 4 (1980): 453-477.
Ivie, Robert L. "The Metaphor of Force in Prowar Discourse: The Case of 1812." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 68 (1982): 240-253.
Winn, Larry James. "The `War Hawks' Call to Arms: Appeals for a Second War with Great
Britain." Southern Speech Communication Journal 37 (1972):
Ivie, Robert L. "Progressive Form and Mexican Culpability in Polk's Justification for War." The Central States Speech Journal. 30 (1979): 311-320.
Bass, Jeff D. and Richard Cherwitz. "Imperial Mission and Manifest Destiny: A Case Study of Political Myth in Rhetorical Discourse." Southern Speech Communication Journal 43 (1978): 213-232.
Andrews, James R. "They Chose the Sword: Appeals to War in Nineteenth-Century American Public Address." Today's Speech 17 (1969):
WEEK 4: September 21.
Burke, Kenneth. "The Rhetoric of Hitler's `Battle.'" In Kenneth Burke, The Philosophy of Literary Form. New York: Vintage Books, 1957.
Perry, Steven. "Rhetorical Functions of the Infestation Metaphor in Hitler's Rhetoric." Central States Speech Journal 34 (1983): 229-235.
Rickert, W. E. "Winston Churchill's Archetypal Metaphors: A Mythopoetic Translation of World War II." Communication Studies 28 (1977): 106-112.
Stelzner, Hermann G. "`War Message,' December 8, 1941: An Approach to Language." Speech Monographs 232 (1966): 419-37.
Hunt, Everett. "The Rhetorical Mood of World War II." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 29 (1943): 1-5.
Hikins, James W. "The Rhetoric of `Unconditional Surrender' and the Decision to Drop the Atomic Bomb." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 69 (1983): 379-400.
C. The Rhetoric of the Cold War and Beyond
WEEK 5: September 28
Cragan, John F. "The Origins and Nature of the Cold War Rhetorical Vision 1946-1972: A Partial History." In Applied Communication Research: A Dramatistic Approach, ed. John F. Cragan and Donald C. Shields. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1981.
Hensley, Carl Wayne. "Harry S. Truman: Fundamental Americanism in Foreign Policy Speechmaking, 1945-1946." Southern Speech Communication Journal 40 (1974): 180-190.
Medhurst, Martin J. "Truman's Rhetorical Reticence, 1945-1947: An Interpretive Essay." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 74 (1988): 52-70.
Underhill, William R. "Harry S. Truman: Spokesman for Containment." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 47 (1961): 268-274.
Brockriede, Wayne and Robert L. Scott. "The Rhetoric of Containment: America Develops a Policy and an Ideology." In Wayne Brockriede and Robert L. Scott, Moments in the Rhetoric of the Cold War. New York: Random House, 1970.
Hinds, Lynn Boyd and Theodore Otto Windt, Jr. "The Truman Doctrine." In Boyd and Windt, The Cold War as Rhetoric: The Beginnings, 1945-1950. Praeger: New York, 1991.
WEEK 6: October 5
Note: Prospectus Paper Due In Class on October 5.
Newman, Robert P. "Lethal Rhetoric: The Selling of the China Myths." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 61 (1975): 113-128.
McKerrow, Ray E. "Truman and Korea: Rhetoric in the Pursuit of Victory." Central States
Communication Journal 28 (1977): 1-12.
Ivie, Robert L. "Literalizing the Metaphor of Soviet Savagery: President Truman's Plain Style." Southern States Communication Journal 51 (1986): 91-105.
Ivie, Robert L. "Declaring a National Emergency: Truman's Rhetorical Crisis and the Great Debate of 1951." In The Modern Presidency and Crisis Rhetoric, ed. Amos Kiewe. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1994.
WEEK 7: October 12
Ivie, Robert L. "Eisenhower as Cold Warrior." In Eisenhower's War of Words: Rhetoric and Leadership. ed. Martin J. Medhurst. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1994.
Schaeferemeyer, Mark J. "Dulles and Eisenhower on `Massive Retaliation.'" In Eisenhower's War of Words. ed. Medhurst.
Brockriede, Wayne. "John Foster Dulles: A New Rhetoric Justifies an Old Policy." In Rhetoric and Communication: Studies in the University of Illinois Tradition. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1976.
Medhurst, Martin J. "Eisenhower's `Atoms for Peace' Speech: A Case Study in the Strategic Use of Language." Communication Monographs 54 (1987): 204-220.
Hogan, J. Michael. "Eisenhower and Open Skies: A Case Study in `Psychological Warfare.'" In, Eisenhower's War of Words. ed. Medhurst.
Gregg, Richard B. "The Rhetoric of Distancing: Eisenhower's Suez Crisis Speech, 31 October 1956." In Eisenhower's War of Words. ed. Medhurst.
Brockriede, Wayne and Robert L. Scott, "Reducing Rhetorical Distance: Khrushchev's 1959 American Tour." In Wayne Brockriede and Robert L. Scott, Moments in the Rhetoric of the Cold War. New York: Random House, 1970.
WEEK 8: October 19
Brockriede, Wayne and Robert L. Scott, "A Complex Persuasive Campaign: The Cuban Missile Crisis." In Brockriede and Scott, Moments in the Rhetoric of the Cold War. New York: Random House, 1970.
Bruner, Michael S. "Symbolic Uses of the Berlin Wall, 1961-1989." Communication Quarterly 37 (1989): 319-328.
Pucci, Enrico. "Crisis as Pretext: John F. Kennedy and the Rhetorical Construction of the Berlin Crisis." In The Modern Presidency and Crisis Rhetoric. ed. Amos Kiewe. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1994.
Windt, Theodore. "Seeking Detente with Superpowers: John F. Kennedy at American University." In Essays in Presidential Rhetoric, ed. Theodore Windt and Beth Ingold. Dubuque, Ia.: Kendall/Hunt Publishers, 1983.
Medhurst, Martin J. "Rhetorical Portraiture: John F. Kennedy's March 2, 1962, Speech on the Resumption of Atmospheric Tests." In Medhurst et al. Cold War Rhetoric: Strategy, Metaphor, and Ideology. New York: Greenwood Press, 1990.
Bostdorff, Denise M. The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis. Chapter on the Cuban Missile Crisis.
WEEK 9: October 26
Bass, Jeff D. "The Appeal to Efficiency in Narrative Closure: Lyndon Johnson and the Dominican Crisis, 1965." Southern Speech Communication Journal 50 (1985): 103-120.
Cherwitz, Richard A. "Lyndon Johnson and the 'Crisis' of Tonkin Gulf: A President's Justification of War." Western Journal of Speech Communication 42 (1978): 93-104.
Bostdorff, Denise M. The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis. Chapter on the Gulf of Tonkin.
Smith, F. Michael. "Rhetorical Implications of the `Aggression' Thesis in the Johnson Administration's Vietnam Argumentation." Central States Speech Journal 22 (1972): 217-224.
Ivie, Robert L. "Metaphor and Motive in the Johnson Administration's Vietnam War Rhetoric." In Texts in Context: Critical Dialogues on Significant Episodes in American Political Rhetoric, ed. Michael C. Leff and Fred J. Kauffeld. Davis, Ca.: Hermagoras Press, 1989.
Logue, Cal M. and John H. Patton, "From Ambiguity to Dogma: The Rhetorical Symbols of Lyndon B. Johnson on Vietnam." Southern States Communication Journal 47 (1982): 310-329.
Turner, Kathleen J. "The Evolution of the Johns Hopkins Address, April 7, 1965." In Kathleeen J. Turner, Lyndon Johnson's Dual War: Vietnam and the Press. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985.
Windt, Jr., Theodore Otto. "Americanizing the Vietnam War: President Johnson's Press Conference of July 28, 1965." In Theodore Otto Windt, Jr., Presidents and Protesters: Political Rhetoric in the 1960s. Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1990.
WEEK 10: November 2
Note: Examination Questions Distributed in Class.
Stelzner, Hermann G. "The Quest Story and Nixon's November 3, 1969 Address." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 57 (1971): 163-172.
Newman, Robert P. "Under the Veneer: Nixon's Vietnam Speech of November 3, 1969." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 56 (1970): 168-178.
Hill, Forbes I. "Conventional Wisdom--Traditional Form: The President's Message of November 3, 1969." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 58 (1972): 373-386.
Gregg, Richard B. "Richard Nixon's April 30, 1970 Address on Cambodia: The `Ceremony' of Confrontation." Communication Monographs 40 (1973): 167-181.
Bostdorff, Denise M. The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis. Chapter on Nixon and Cambodia.
Vartabedian, Robert A. "Nixon's Vietnam Rhetoric: A Case Study of Apologia as Generic Paradox." Southern States Communication Journal 50 (1985): 366-381.
WEEK 11: November 9
Note: Written Examination Due in Class on November 9.
Hahn, Dan. "Corrupt Rhetoric: President Ford and the Mayaguez Affair." Communication Quarterly 28 (1980): 38-43.
Bostdorff, Denise M. The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis. Chapter on Ford and the Mayaguez Incident.
Hahn, Dan. "The Rhetoric of Jimmy Carter, 1976-1980." Presidential Studies Quarterly 14 (1984): 265-288.
Griffin, Charles J. G. "Narrative Character in Presidential Crisis Rhetoric: Jimmy Carter and the Iranian Hostage Crisis." In The Modern Presidency and Crisis Rhetoric. ed. Amos Kiewe. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1994.
Ivie, Robert L. "From Conversion to Punishment: Jimmy Carter's Rhetorical Ministry Before and After Afghanistan." Paper Presented at the 77th Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association, Atlanta, Georgia, October 31, 1991.
Bostdorff, Denise M. The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis. Chapter on Carter and Iran.
Palmerton, Patricia R. "The Rhetoric of Terrorism and Media Response to the `Crisis in Iran.'" Western Journal of Speech Communication 52 (1988): 105-121.
WEEK 12: November 16
Annual Meeting of the Speech Communication Association, New Orleans, Louisiana
Note: Class will not meet November 16, in order to allow preparation time for presentations at the SCA convention; nor will it meet November 23 because of the Thanksgiving Recess. Reading for Week 13 includes extra items, however, in order to cover the Reagan presidency within the available time.
WEEK 13: November 30
Ivie, Robert L. "Speaking `Common Sense' About the Soviet Threat: Reagan's Rhetorical Stance." Western Journal of Speech Communication 48 (1984): 39-50.
Bass, Jeff D. "The Paranoid Style in Foreign Policy: Ronald Reagan's Control of the Situation in Nicaragua." In Reagan and Public Discourse in America. ed. Michael Weiler and W. Barnett Pearce. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992.
Henry, David. "Ronald Reagan and Aid to the Contras: An Analysis of the Rhetorical Presidency." In Rhetorical Dimensions in Media. ed. Martin J. Medhurst and Thomas W. Benson. 2nd ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1991.
Klope, David C. "Defusing a Foreign Policy Crisis: Myth and Victimage in Reagan's 1983 Lebanon/Grenada Address." Western Journal of Speech Communication 50 (1986): 336-349.
Birdsell, David S. "Ronald Reagan on Lebanon and Grenada: Flexibility and Interpretation in the Application of Kenneth Burke's Pentad," The Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 267-279.
Bostdorff, Denise M. The Presidency and the Rhetoric of Foreign Crisis. Chapter on Reagan and Grenada.
Ivie, Robert L. "AIM's Vietnam and the Rhetoric of Cold War Orthodoxy." In The Cultural Legacy of Vietnam: Uses of the Past in the Present, ed. Richard Morris and Peter Ehrenhaus. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex, 1990.
Goodnight, G. Thomas. "Ronald Reagan's Re-formulation of the Rhetoric of War: Analysis of the `Zero Option,' `Evil Empire,' and `Star Wars' Addresses." Quarterly Journal of Speech 72 (1986): 390-414.
Corcoran, Farrel. "KAL 007 and the Evil Empire: Mediated Disaster and Forms of Rationalization," Critical Studies of Mass Communication 3 (1986): 297-316.
Manoff, Karl. "Modes of War and Modes of Social Address: The Text of SDI." Journal of Communication 39 (1989): 59-84.
Rushing, Janice. "Ronald Reagan's `Star Wars' Address: Mythic Containment of Technical Reasoning." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 72 (1986): 415-433.
Goodnight, G. Thomas. "Rhetoric, Legitimation, and the End of the Cold War: Ronald Reagan at the Moscow Summit, 1988." In Reagan and Public Discourse in America. ed. Michael Weiler and W. Barnett Pearce. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1992.
WEEK 14: December 7
Ivie, Robert L. "Metaphor and the Rhetorical Invention of Cold War `Idealists.'" Communication Monographs 54 (1987) 165-182.
Pollock, Mark A. "The Battle for the Past: George Bush and the Gulf Crisis." In The Modern Presidency and Crisis Rhetoric. ed. Amos Kiewe. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger, 1994.
Ronell, Avital. "Support Our Tropes: Reading Desert Storm." In Rhetorical Republic: Governing Representations in American Politics. ed. Frederick M. Dolan and Thomas L. Dumm. Amherst: The University of Massachusetts, 1993.
Campbell, David. "Cold Wars: Securing Identity, Identifying Danger." In Rhetorical Republic. ed. Dolan and Dumm.
George, Larry N. "`The Fair Fame of the Dead': The Precession of War Simulacra and the Reconstitution of Post-Cold War Conservatism." In Rhetorical Republic. ed. Dolan and Dunn.
Note: Research Paper Due By 5:00 p.m., Monday, December 12.
Note: Ancillary Units and Supplementary Bibliographies are not required reading. They are provided for your interest and convenience.
D. Ancillary Unit: Nuclearism
Foss, Karen A. and Stephen W. Littlejohn, "The Day After: Rhetorical Vision in an Ironic Frame." Critical Studies of Mass Communication 3 (1986): 317-336.
Goldzwig, Steven and George Cheney. "The U.S. Catholic Bishops on Nuclear Arms: Corporate Advocacy, Role Redefinition, and Rhetorical Adaptation." Central States Speech Journal 35 (1984): 8-23.
King, Andrew and Kenneth Petress, "Universal Public Argument and the Failure of Nuclear Freeze." Southern Communication Journal 55 (1990): 162-174.
Hogan, J. Michael. "Apocalyptic Pornography and the Nuclear Freeze: A Defense of the Public." In Argument and Critical Practices, ed. Joseph W. Wenzel. Annandale, Va.: Speech Communication Association, 1987.
Kauffman, Charles. "Names and Weapons." Communication Monographs 56 (1989): 273-285.
Schiappa, Edward. "The Rhetoric of Nukespeak." Communication Monographs 56 (1989): 251-272.
Mechling, Elizabeth Walker and Jay Mechling. "The Campaign for Civil Defense and the Struggle to Naturalize the Bomb." Western Journal of Speech Communication 55 (1991): 105-133.
Mehan, Hugh, Charles E. Nathanson and James M. Skelly. "Nuclear Discourse in the 1980s: The Unravelling Conventions of the Cold War." Discourse and Society 1 (1990): 133-165.
Brummett, Barr. "Perfection and the Bomb: Nuclear Weapons, Teleology, and Motives." Journal of Communication 39 (1989): 85-95.
Taylor, Bryan C. "The Politics of the Nuclear Text: Reading Robert Oppenheimer's Letters and Recollections." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 78 (1992): 429-449.
Taylor, Bryan C. "Register of the Repressed: Women's Voice and Body in the Nuclear Weapons Organization." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 79 (1993): 267-285.
E. Ancillary Unit: War Memorial
Carlson, A. Cheree and John E. Hocking. "Strategies of Redemption at the Vietnam Veterans' Memorial." Western Journal of Speech Communication 52 (1988): 203-215.
Foss, Sonja. "Ambiguity as Persuasion: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial," Communication Quarterly 34 (1986): 326-340.
Haines, Harry W. "`What Kind of War?' An Analysis of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial," Critical Studies of Mass Communication 3 (1986): 1-20.
Morris, Richard. "The Vietnam Veterans Memorial and the Myth of Superiority." In Cultural Legacies of Vietnam. ed. Richard Morris and Peter Ehrenhaus. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex, 1990.
Blair, Carole, Marsha S. Jeppeson, and Enrico Pucci, Jr. "Public Memorializing in Postmodernity: The Vietnam Veterans Memorial as Prototype." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 77 (1991): 263-288.
III. Supplementary Bibliographies
A. Additional Rhetorical Studies of War
Ahearn, Marie L. The Rhetoric of War: Training Day, the Militia, and the Military Sermon. New York: Greenwood Press, 1989.
Bailey, Richard E. "Fulbright's Universe of Discourse," Southern States Communication Journal 35 (1970): 33-42.
Bass, Jeff D. "The Rhetorical Opposition to Controversial Wars: Rhetorical Timing as a Generic Consideration." Western Journal of Speech Communication 43 (1979): 181-191.
Bennett, William. "Conflict Rhetoric and Game Theory: An Extrapolation and Example." Southern Speech Communication Journal 37 (1971): 34-46.
Benson, Thomas W. "Inaugurating Peace: Franklin D. Roosevelt's Last Speech." Communication Monographs 36 (1969): 138-147.
Bryan, Ferald J. "George C. Marshall at Harvard: A Study of the Origins and Construction of the `Marshall Plan' Speech." Presidential Studies Quarterly 21 (1991): 489-502.
Carpenter, Ronald H. "America's Tragic Metaphor: Our Twentieth-Century Combatants as Frontiersmen." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 76 (1990): 1-22.
Cherwitz, Richard A. and Kenneth S. Zagacki, "Consummatory Versus Justificatory Crisis Rhetoric," Western Journal of Speech Communication 50 (1986): 307-324.
Corcoran, Farrel. "The Bear in the Back Yard: Myth, Ideology, and Victimage Ritual in Soviet Funerals." Communication Monographs 50 (1983): 305-320.
Cragan, John F. and Donald C. Shields, "Foreign Policy Communication Dramas: How Mediated Rhetoric Played in Peoria in Campaign '76," The Quarterly Journal of Speech 63 (1977): 274-289.
Depoe, Stephen P. "Arthur Schlesinger, Jr.'s `Middle Way Out of Vietnam': The Limits of Technocratic Realism as the Basis for Foreign Policy Dissent." Western Journal of Speech Communication 52 (1988): 147-166.
Dow, Bonnie J. "The Function of Epideictic and Deliberative Strategies in Presidential Crisis Rhetoric." Western Journal of Speech Communication 46 (1982): 299-310.
Gregg, Richard B. "The 1966 Senate Foreign Relations Committee Hearings on Vietnam Policy: A Phenomenolgical Analysis." In Explorations in Rhetorical Criticism, ed. G. P. Mohrmann, Charles J. Stewart, and Donovan J. Ochs. University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1973.
Gregg, Richard B. "A Rhetorical Re-examination of Arthur Vandenberg's `Dramatic Conversion,'
January 10, 1945." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 61 1975): 154-168.
Hahn, Dan and Robert L. Ivie, "'Sex' as a Rhetorical Invitation to War." Etcetera: A Review of General Semantics 45 (1988): 15-21.
Hatzenbuehler, Ronald L. and Robert L. Ivie, Congress Declares War: Rhetoric, Leadership, and Partisanship in the Early Republic. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press, 1983.
Heisey, D. Ray. "Reagan and Mitterand Respond to International Crisis: Creating Versus Transcending Appearances," Western Journal of Speech Communication 50 (1986): 325-335.
Heisey, D. Ray. "The Strategy of Narrative and Metaphor in Interventionist Rhetoric: International Case Studies." In Rhetorical Movement: Essays in Honor of Leland M. Griffin, ed. David Zarefsky. Evanston, Ill: Northwestern University Press, 1993.
Hogan, J. Michael, "The Rhetoric of Historiography: New Left Revisionism in the Vietnam Era." In Argument and Social Practice, ed. J. Robert Cox, Malcolm O. Sillars, and Gregg B. Walker. Annandale, Va.: Speech Communication Association, 1985.
Ivie, Robert L. "The Ideology of Freedom's 'Fragility' in American Foreign Policy Argument." Journal of the American Forensic Association 24 (1987): 27-36.
Ivie, Robert L. "Metaphor and Campaign '84: Strategic Options on Foreign Policy Issues." In Rhetorical Dimensions in Media: A Critical Casebook. ed. Martin J. Medhurst and Thomas W. Benson. 2nd ed. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt, 1991.
Kelley, Colleen E. "The Public Rhetoric of Mikhail Gorbachev and the Promise of Peace." Western Journal of Speech Communication 52 (1988): 321-334.
Leeman, Richard W. The Rhetoric of Terrorism and Counterterrorism. New York: Greenwood Press, 1991.
Lewis, William F. "Telling America's Story: Narrative Form and the Reagan Presidency." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 73 (1987): 280-302.
Mechling, Elizabeth Walker and Gale Auletta, "Beyond War: A Socio-Rhetorical Analysis of a New Class Revitalization Movement." Western Journal of Speech Communication 50 (1986): 388-404.
Medhurst, Martin J. Dwight D. Eisenhower: Strategic Communicator. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1993.
Newman, Robert P. "The Criticism of Foreign Policy Argument," in Jack Rhodes and Sara Newell, eds. Proceedings of the 1980 Summer Conference on Argumentation. Annandale, Virginia: Speech Communication Association, 1980.
Newman, Robert P. "Foreign Policy: Decision and Argument." In Advances in Argumentation Theory and Research, ed. J. Robert Cox and Charles Arthur Willard. Carbondale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press, 1982.
Oliver, Robert T. "The Varied Rhetoric of International Relations." Western Speech 25 (1961): 213-221.
Patterson, J. W. "Arthur Vandenberg's Rhetorical Strategy in Advancing Bipartisan Foreign Policy." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 45 (1970): 284-295.
Procter, David E. "The Rescue Mission: Assigning Guilt to a Chaotic Scene." Western Journal of Speech Communication 51 (1987): 245-255.
Rosenfield, L.W. "A Case Study in Speech Criticism: The Nixon-Truman Analog." Communication Monographs 35 (1968): 435-450.
Rosenwasser, Marie J. "Six Senate War Critics and Their Appeals for Gaining Audience
Response." Today's Speech 17 (1969): 43-50.
Rushing, Janice Hocker and Thomas S. Frentz, "`The Deer Hunter': Rhetoric of the Warrior." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 66 (1980): 392-406.
Ryan, Halford Ross. "Harry S Truman: A Misdirected Defense for MacArthur's Dismissal." Presidential Studies Quarterly 11 (1981): 576-582.
Ryan, Halford R. Harry S. Truman: Presidential Rhetoric. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1993.
Schuetz, Janice. "Argumentative Competence and the Negotiation of Henry Kissinger." Journal of American Forensic Association 15 (1978): 1-16.
Smith, Craig Allen. "An Organic Systems Analysis of Persuasion and Social Movement: The John Birch Society, 1958-1966." Southern States Communication Journal 49 (1984), 155-176.
Wallace, Karl R. "On the Criticism of the MacArthur Speech." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 39 (1953): 69-74.
Wilson, John F. "Rhetorical Echoes of a Wilsonian Idea." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 43 (1957): 271-277.
Windt, Theodore. "The Presidency and Speeches on International Crises." Speaker and Gavel, 11 (1973): 6-14.
Windt, Jr., Theodore Otto. "The Rhetoric of Peaceful Coexistence: Khrushchev in America, 1959." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 56 (1971): 11-22.
Young, Marilyn J. "When the Shoe Is on the Other Foot: The Reagan Administration's Treatment of the Shootdown of Iran Air." In Reagan and Public Discourse in America. ed. Michael Weiler and W. Barnett Pearce. Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press, 1992.
Young, Marilyn J. and Michael K. Launer. Flights of Fancy, Flight of Doom: KAL 007 and Soviet-American Rhetoric. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 1988.
Young, Marilyn J. and Michael K. Launer. "KAL 007 and the Superpowers: An International Argument." The Quarterly Journal of Speech 74 (1988): 271-295.
Zagacki, Kenneth S. and Andrew King. "Reagan, Romance and Technology: A Critique of `Star Wars.'" Communication Studies 40 (1989): 1-12.
B. Cognate Studies of War
Adler, Les K. and Thomas G. Paterson, "Red Fascism: The Merger of Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia in the American Image of Totalitarianism, 1930s-1950s." American Historical Review 75 (1970): 1046-1064.
Arendt, Hannah. On Violence. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1969.
Barnet, Richard J. Roots of War. Baltimore, Maryland: Penguin Books, 1971.
Blainey, Geoffrey. The Causes of War. New York: The Free Press, 1973.
Brodie, Bernard. War and Politics. New York: Macmillan, 1973.
Brown, Seyom. The Causes and Prevention of War. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987.
Campbell, Joseph. "Mythologies of War and Peace." In Myths to Live By. New York: Bantam, 1972.
Chomsky, Noam. The Chomsky Reader. ed. James Peck. New York: Pantheon Books, 1987.
Chomsky, Noam. Deterring Democracy. New York: Hill and Wang, 1991.
Chomsky, Noam. Necessary Illusions: Thought Control in Democratic Societies. Boston: South End Press, 1989.
Clausewitz, Carl Von. On War. ed. Anatol Rapoport. New York: Penguin Boods, 1968.
Cooper, Helen M., Adrienne Auslander Munich, and Susan Merrill Squier, ed. Arms and the Woman: War, Gender, and Literary Representation. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989.
Dower, John W. War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon Books, 1986.
Fussell, Paul. The Great War and Modern Memory. London: Oxford University Press, 1975.
Fussell, Paul. Wartime: Understanding and Behavior in the Second World War. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
Gaddis, John Lewis. The United States and the End of the Cold War: Impolications, Reconsiderations, Provocations. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
Gelven, Michael. War and Existence: A Philosophical Inquiry. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1994.
Gioseffi, Daniela, ed. Women On War: Essential Voices for the Nuclear Age. New York: Touchstone, 1988.
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