| Date |
Event |
Historical
Background |
| January
8, 1918 |
Wilson's
Fourteen Points |
In an address
to the U.S. Congress, President Woodrow Wilson outlined a peace program
which included the following points: open covenants openly arrived at;
absolute freedom of navigation in peace and war; the removal of all
economic barriers; the reduction of armaments consistent with domestic
security; an impartial adjustment of all colonial claims with the interests
of the local population equal to the claims of the government; the evacuation
of Russian territory and the free determination of Russian political
and national policy; the evacuation and restoration of Belgium; the
evacuation and restoration of French territory and the restoration of
Alsace-Lorraine to France; readjustments to the Italian border along
lines of nationality; opportunity for the autonomous development of
the peoples of Austria-Hungary; the evacuation and restoration of Romanian,
Serbian, and Montenegrin territory, together with access to the sea
for Serbia; secure sovereignty for the Turkish parts of the Ottoman
Empire, but other nationalities to receive the opportunity for autonomous
development, and the Dardenelles to be opened to the ships of all nations
under international guaranties; an independent Poland with free and
secure access to the sea; and the establishment of a general association
of nations to afford mutual guaranties of political independence and
territorial integrity to both great and small powers. President Wilson's
Fourteen Points laid out the basis for the post-war peace and the creation
of the League of Nations. |
| January
10, 1918 |
Independence
of the Republic of the Don |
With German
encouragement, the Cossacks announced their independence from Russia
and the establishment of the Republic of the Don. |
| January
10, 1918 |
Defeat
of Conscription in Australia |
Australian
voters defeated conscription plans in a national referendum. The Australian
government had planned to increase the army's manpower requirements
through a mandatory military draft. |
| January
10-May 11, 1918 |
Soviet
War with the Cossacks |
The revolt
of the Don Cossacks, led by General Lavr Kornilov and General Alexei
Kaledin, began in December 1917, and marked the beginning of the Russian
Civil War. Military operations began in January 1918 and, after a defeat,
General Kaledin committed suicide on February 13th. General Kornilov
was killed in combat on April 13th, and command in the south was taken
over by General Anton Denikin on May 11th, with the support of General
Peter Krasnov, Hetman of the Don Cossacks. |
| January
12, 1918 |
Latvian
Declaration of Independence |
The Latvians
declared their independence from Russia, but remained under German occupation.
The Latvian National Council was unable to assert its authority or build
up a national army. |
| January
16, 1918 |
Strikes
in Vienna |
Living
conditions in Austria deteriorated as a result of the war, which resulted
in major strikes and labor demands. |
| January
27-August 4, 1918 |
British
Caspian Offensive |
A British
force, under General Lionel Dunsterville, departed Baghdad on January
27th to gain control of the oil-rich Caspian region of western Persia.
General Dunsterville's objectives were to stiffen the Georgian and Armenians
against the Turks and block a possible German offensive from the Ukraine.
The British occupied Enzeli on February 17th and Kirmanshah on February
25th. The Bolsheviks at Baku, however, threatened the British position
and General Dunsterville was forced to withdraw to Hamadan in Persia.
By the summer and bolstered by reinforcements, the British resumed their
offensive, occupying Baku on August 4th, after the overthrow of the
Bolshevik government on July 26th. |
| January
28, 1918 |
Finnish
Civil War |
After proclaiming
their complete independence from Russia, a civil war broke out in Finland
between the Reds, supported by the Russian Bolsheviks, and the Whites,
opponents of the Bolsheviks. At the end of January, the Red Finns seized
Helsingfors (Helsinki) and overran most of southern Finland.
|
| January
28-February 3, 1918 |
Strikes
in Berlin |
The general
decline in living conditions in Germany due to the total war economy
and the Allied blockade resulted in a series of strikes in Berlin. |
| February
1, 1918 |
Ukrainian
Independence |
The Central
Powers recognized the independence of the Ukraine from Russia. The Ukrainians
had declared their independence on November 20, 1917 and set up a Ukrainian
People's Republic. |
| February
6, 1918 |
Romanian
Peace Negotiations |
After signing
the Truce of Focsani on December 6, 1917, which ended hostilities between
Romania and the Central Powers, the Germans issued an ultimatum to the
Romanian government to begin peace negotiations on February 6th. Premier
Ion Bratianu resigned from office and was succeeded by Alexandre Averescu
as Romanian prime minister and foreign minister. |
| February
9, 1918 |
Ukrainian
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk |
The Central
Powers and the Ukrainian government signed a Treaty of Peace at Brest-Litovsk. |
| February
10, 1918 |
Soviet
Russian Declaration of Peace |
Soviet
Commissar for Foreign Affairs, Leon Trotsky, declared the end of the
war unilaterally, although a peace treaty had not yet been signed with
the Central Powers. |
| February
10-March 2, 1918 |
Soviet
Russian Offensive in the Ukraine |
With the
declaration of independence of the Ukraine and the Ukrainian peace treaty
with Germany and Austria-Hungary, the Soviets moved to regain control
of the Ukraine. The Red Army seized Kiev on February 18th, but was forced
to retreat on March 2nd in the face of a German offensive. |
| February
16, 1918 |
Lithuanian
Independence |
The National
Council made a formal declaration of independence from Russia, with
the support of the Germans. The Bolsheviks invaded the country the same
day, although the Russians would accept Lithuanian independence in the
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in March 1918. |
| February
18-March 4, 1918 |
German
Offensive in Russia |
In response
to the Soviet declaration of peace, the Germans resumed their offensive
in Russia. The Central Powers captured Dvinsk on February 18th, Minsk
on February 21st, Dubno and Dorpat on February 24th, Reval on February
25th, Pskov on February 25th, Kiev on March 1st, and Narva on March
4th. German forces advanced to within 100 miles of Petrograd. |
| February
19, 1918 |
Mexican
National Oil Decree |
The Mexican
government declared petroleum an inalienable national resource by decree
and levied a tax on oil lands and contracts made before May 1, 1917.
The government decreed that titles to oil lands had to be transformed
into concessions. American and British petroleum companies, with the
support of their governments, immediately protested the decree. The
issue was temporarily settled by compromise, but the policy was Mexican's
government first step in a long campaign to break the power and wealth
of the foreign oil companies operating in Mexico. |
| February
24, 1918 |
Estonian
Independence |
Although
the Estonians first declared their independence from Russia in November
1917, the Soviets quickly regained control of this strategic region.
Under German protection, the Estonians again proclaimed their independence
on February 24th. Konstantine Paets formed a provisional government
to rule the country. |
| February
28, 1918 |
Russian
Renewal of Peace Negotiations |
By the
order of Nicholai Lenin, Leon Trotsky and the Russian delegation renewed
their negotiations for peace with the Central Power representatives. |
| March
2, 1918 |
German
Occupation of the Aaland Islands |
At the
request of the Finnish government, the Germans occupied the Aaland Islands
in the Baltic Sea. |
| March
3, 1918 |
Treaty
of Brest-Litovsk |
The Russians
signed a peace treaty with the German, Austro-Hungarian, Bulgarian,
and Turkish governments at Brest-Litovsk which took the Russians out
of World War I. The Russians agreed to abandon Poland, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, the Ukraine, Finland, and Transcaucasia, significantly reducing
the size of pre-war Russia. With the Russian peace treaty, the Germans
were able to transfer troops from the Eastern Front to support their
major offensive in France. The Allied Powers viewed the Bolshevik regime
as an enemy which had significantly undermined their war effort and
sought ways to reestablish a front in the east to prevent the transfer
of German forces to France. |
| March
3-May 1, 1918 |
German
Ukrainian Offensive |
To clear
the Bolsheviks out of the Ukraine, the Germans and Austrians dispatched
an expeditionary force into the Ukraine. They seized Kiev on March 3rd,
Odessa on March 13th, Nicolaiev on March 17th, Kharkov and Rostov on
April 8th, and invaded the Crimea, capturing Sevastopol on May 1st.
The Ukraine became a critical granary for the Central Powers, which
faced severe food shortages due to the Allied blockade. |
| March
5, 1918 |
Preliminary
Romanian Peace Treaty |
The Romanian
government signed a preliminary peace treaty with the Central Powers
with specific terms spelled out in the Treaty of Bucharest of May 1918. |
| March
7, 1918 |
Finnish-German
Treaty |
The German
and White Finnish governments signed a treaty whereby the German government
agreed to send military assistance to the White Finns in the Finnish
Civil War. |
| March
10, 1918 |
Dissolution
of the Central American Court |
After the
Nicaraguan government denounced the court and the members failed to
renew the organization's arrangements, the Central American Court was
dissolved. |
| March
12, 1918 |
Soviet
Russian Transfer to Moscow |
With German
forces closing in on Petrograd and nationalist and counter-revolutionary
governments emerging in the border regions, the Bolshevik government
decided to move the capital to Moscow. |
| March
21-July 15, 1918 |
German
Spring Offensive in France |
In a last
ditch effort to win the war, the German army mounted a series of massive
offensives on the Western Front. The Germans began their advance with
the Great March Offensive against British lines at St. Quentin on March
21st. The British lines broke and the Germans advanced 40 miles within
a few days, capturing Peronne, Ham, Bapaume, Chauny, Noyon, and Montdidier
by April 14th. In a second major offensive, the Germans stormed the
Messines Ridge south of Ypres on April 9th and took Armentieres, opening
a wide gap in the British lines. The lack of reinforcements prevented
the Germans from exploiting their success in the Battle of the Lys.
The Germans then turned against the French and launched a major offensive
against Chemin des Dames on May 27th, which marked the beginning of
the Third Battle of the Aisne. The attack surprised the French and they
were thrown back 13 miles. The Germans captured Soissons on May 29th
and reached the Marne River on May 30th, only 37 miles from Paris. On
June 4th, American forces arrived at Chateau-Thierry and helped slow
the German advance. |
| March
23, 1918 |
German
Recognition of Lithuania |
The German
government recognized the independence of Lithuania from Russia. |
| March
23, 1918 |
Costa
Rican War Declaration against Germany |
The Costa
Rican government declared war against Germany. |
| March
25, 1918 |
Sino-Japanese
Notes on Siberia |
The Chinese
and Japanese governments were concerned about the Bolshevik Revolution
and resulting Russian Civil War. The two governments began negotiations
for a defensive alliance to build up defenses against Soviet Russian
expansion in Siberia. |
| April
3-May 7, 1918 |
German
Finnish Offensive |
The Germans
landed troops in Finland on April 3rd to help the Whites defeat the
Red forces. The White Finns were led by Baron Karl Gustav Mannerheim,
who sought to drive the Reds out of Finland. The Germans captured Helsingfors
(Helsinki) on April 13th and Viborg on April 30th. After a major battle
at Lahti, the Finnish Whites and Germans defeated the Reds, ending the
Finnish Civil War on May 7th. As a result of this victory, Finland remained
under strong German influence. |
| April
5, 1918 |
U.S.
War Finance Commission |
The Wilson
administration established the War Finance Commission with a fund of
$500 million to finance essential industries for the American war effort. |
| April
5, 1918 |
Allied
Intervention in Siberia |
The British
and Japanese marines landed forces at Vladivostok on April 5th, followed
later by American and French forces. |
| April
9, 1918 |
Moldavian
Union with Romania |
The Moldavian
Republic, which declared its independence from Russia on December 23,
1917, proclaimed its union with Romania. The Russian government opposed
this union on April 23rd, but the Central Powers recognized the proclamation
in the Treaty of Bucharest. |
| April
10, 1918 |
Congress
of Oppressed Austrian Nationalities |
Czech,
Polish, Romanian, and Yugoslav representatives met in Rome for the Congress
of Oppressed Austrian Nationalities to proclaim the right of self-determination
for their peoples, denounce the Hapsburg monarchy as an obstacle to
the free development of nations, and to recognize the need to fight
against the Hapsburg government. |
| April
10, 1918 |
Webb-Pomerne
Act |
The U.S.
government passed the Webb-Pomerne Act which was designed to encourage
American exports by exempting export associations from restraints due
to anti-trust laws. |
| April
17, 1918 |
Irish
Conscription |
The British
government introduced conscription in Ireland to help fill the ranks
of the British army. The policy was very unpopular and the Irish Nationalists
withdrew from Parliament in Westminster in protest. |
| April
21, 1918 |
Italian
Recognition of the Czechoslovak National Council |
The Italian
government recognized the Czechoslovak National Council as the de facto
government of Czechoslovakia. |
| April
22, 1918 |
Independence
of Transcaucasia |
With the
support of the Germans, nationalists in Transcaucasia united to declare
their independence from Russia and to establish a government. The Tran Caucasian
Republic dissolved on May 26th into the separate states of Armenia,
Azerbaijan, and Georgia. |
| April
23, 1918 |
Guatemalan
War Declaration against Germany |
|
| May
1918 |
Cape
to Cairo Railway Construction |
The Cape
to Cairo Railway reached Bukama on the Lualaba River which now made
it possible for passengers to travel from the Cape to Cairo by rail
and water, with two short breaks from Tabora to Mwanza and from Nimule
to Rejaf. |
| May
7, 1918 |
Treaty
of Bucharest |
The Romanian
government signed a definitive peace with the Central Powers. The Romanians
ceded Dobrudja to Bulgaria and turned over the Carpathian passes to
Austria-Hungary. The Germans received a 90-year lease of Romania's oil
fields. |
| May
8, 1918 |
Nicaraguan
War Declaration against Germany |
The Nicaraguan
government declared war against Germany. |
| May
14, 1918 |
German-Lithuanian
Treaty of Alliance |
The German
and Lithuanian governments signed a Treaty of Alliance, which effectively
placed Lithuania under German control. |
| May
16, 1918 |
Sino-Japanese
Treaty of Alliance |
The Chinese
and Japanese governments signed a defensive Treaty of Alliance against
a Soviet Russian threat, which included Japanese training of Chinese
troops who would serve in Siberia under Japanese officers. The Japanese
government provided 250 million yen in loans for Manchurian development
projects (most of the loans went through Premier Tuan Ch'i-jui and his
An-Fu (Anhui-Fukien) Club. |
| May
16, 1918 |
U.S.
Sedition Act |
The U.S.
government passed the Sedition Act as an amendment to the Espionage
Act of 1917. The Sedition Act imposed severe penalties on anyone found
guilty of making or conveying false statements which interfered with
the prosecution of the war; willfully employed disloyal, profane, or
abusive language about the American form of government, the flag, the
Constitution, or military or naval forces; urged the curtailed production
of necessary war materials; or advocated, taught, defended, or suggested
any such acts. The law was aimed primarily at Socialists and pacifists. |
| May
24-August 2, 1918 |
Anglo-American
Occupation of Northern Russia |
British
General Frederick Poole arrived in Murmansk on May 24th to prepare the
way for an Allied Expeditionary Force, which landed on June 23rd. The
Allies landed in North Russia to force the Germans to maintain troops
on the Eastern Front and to protect Allied stores from falling into
Bolshevik hands. On August 2nd, an Anglo-French force landed in Archangel,
following a pro-Entente revolution in the city. The Allies supported
the puppet government of northern Russia. An American contingent joined
the British forces in Murmansk on September 4th, and they seized the
railway from the port. The occupation of Northern Russia resulted in
a virtual state of war between the Allies and the Bolshevik government. |
| May
26, 1918 |
Czech
Legion Offensive in Russia |
In an attempt
to leave Russia and to continue fighting on the Western Front, the Czech
Legion seized the Trans-Siberian Railway and took control of Samara,
Simbirsk, Kazan, Omsk, and Irkutsk. This 100,000 man force was composed
primarily of deserters from the Austro-Hungarian army who joined the
Russians to fight the Central Powers. By March 1918, they were one of
the few organized military forces in Russia. When the Bolshevik authorities
attempted to disarm the Czech Legion, they took over the country's primary
railway system and fought the Red Army. |
| May
26, 1918 |
Georgian
Independence |
The Georgian
government declared its independence from Russia. |
| May
26, 1918 |
Azerbaijani
Independence |
The Azerbaijani
government declared its independence from Russia. |
| May
26, 1918 |
Armenian
Independence |
The Armenian
government declared its independence from Russia. |
| May
29, 1918 |
U.S.
Sympathy for the Czechoslovaks and Yugoslavs |
U.S. Secretary
of State Robert Lansing expressed official U.S. sympathy for the Czechoslovaks
and Yugoslavs in their fight for national sovereignty. |
| June
3, 1918 |
Allied
Recognition of Czechoslovaks, Poles, and Yugoslavs |
The Allied
governments declared their support for the national aspirations of the
Czechoslovak, Polish, and Yugoslav peoples. |
| June
4, 1918 |
Lithuanian
Royal Appointment |
The Lithuanian
Assembly elected Duke William of Wuerttemberg as the new King of Lithuania. |
| June
8, 1918 |
Georgian
Peace Treaty |
The Georgian
government negotiated a Treaty of Peace with Germany and Turkey. |
| June
8, 1918 |
Armenian
Peace Treaty |
The Armenian
government negotiated a Treaty of Peace with Germany and Turkey. |
| June
15-24, 1918 |
Austrian
Offensive in Italy/Battle of the Piave |
In an effort
to prevent the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Austrian
forces crossed the Piave River against the Italians but were unable
to maintain their positions. As a result, the Austrians lost over 100,000
men, which resulted in a steady demoralization of the Austro-Hungarian
army. |
| June
25, 1918 |
Abandonment
of Irish Conscription |
The British
government ended their conscription program in Ireland. |
| June
30, 1918 |
Czechoslovak
Independence |
The French
and Italian governments officially recognized the independence of Czechoslovakia. |
| July
3, 1918 |
Death
of Sultan Mohammed V |
The Turkish
sultan, Mohammed V, died and was succeeded by Sultan Mohammed VI. |
| July
6, 1918 |
Allied
Command of Vladivostok |
The Allied
commanders in Vladivostok officially took over the administration of
the city. |
| July
6, 1918 |
Assassination
of German Ambassador in Moscow |
A Social
Revolutionary murdered the German ambassador to Russia, Count Wilhelm
von Mirbach. As a result of his assassination, the German government
made increased demands on the Soviet Russians, and ended all hope for
cordial relations between the German and Soviet governments. |
| July
10, 1918 |
Promulgation
of the Soviet Constitution |
The Fifth
All-Russian Congress of Soviets promulgated the Soviet constitution.
Under the new law, local soviets elected representatives to the provincial
congresses of soviets, which then sent delegates to the All-Russian
Congress of Soviets. The All-Russian Congress of Soviets elected the
Executive Committee, a permanent organization which acted between sessions
of the Congress. The All-Russian Congress of Soviets also elected the
Council of People's Commissars. Elections were now held on the basis
of occupation, and not on a geographic basis. Factory workers received
more representation than peasants, while the bourgeois class (including
the clergy) were disenfranchised. Secret ballots were no longer permitted
and all elections were open. This "soviet democracy" was dominated,
in theory, by a dictatorship of the proletariat, exercised by the Communist
Party. No other political parties were permitted in Russia and the press
and other forms of communication were placed under government control.
The Communist Party was governed by a Central Committee, which included
a smaller elite group known as the Political Bureau. The latter was
the real governing body of the country. Nicholai Lenin reigned supreme
in both party and government politics until his death in January 1924. |
| July
12, 1918 |
Haitian
War Declaration against Germany |
The government
of Haiti declared war against Germany. |
| July
15-August 7, 1918 |
Second
Battle of the Marne |
The Germans
launched their last major offensive on the Western Front on July 15th,
near Rheims. Weary German troops succeeded in crossing the Marne River
but could not make much headway against strong French and American forces.
General Ferdinand Foch, Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Armies in France,
ordered a counter-attack on July 18th, which forced the Germans to retreat
back over the Marne to the Vesle River and allowed the French to regain
Soissons on August 2nd. The Allied counter-offensive upset the German
plan for an offensive in Flanders and set up the Allied Fall Offensive. |
| July
16, 1918 |
Assassination
of Tsar Nicholas II |
Fearful
of White Russian liberation of Tsar Nicholas II, the local Bolsheviks
murdered the former emperor and his family at Ekaterinberg and disposed
of the bodies. |
| July
19, 1918 |
Honduran
War Declaration against Germany |
The government
of Honduras declared war against Germany. |
| July
26-September 5, 1918 |
Japanese
Intervention in Siberia |
The Japanese
government accepted a proposal from the Wilson administration requesting
Japanese intervention in Siberia in support of the Czech Legion. The
Japanese landed troops at Vladivostok on August 11th and seized Khabarovsk
on September 5th. |
| August
3-October 14, 1918 |
Allied
Intervention Declaration in Siberia |
The Allied
governments announced their intervention plans in Siberia in the Russian
Civil War. The British force advanced west, reaching Irkutsk on October
14th, while Japanese and Chinese forces marched into Siberia. There
they established contact with the Czech Legion, which controlled the
railway system in western Siberia. |
| August
8-October 15, 1918 |
Allied
Summer Offensive on the Western Front |
After the
Allies stopped the German Spring Offensive at the Second Battle of the
Marne, the Allies went on the offensive and forced the Germans back.
The British launched the Battle of Amiens on August 8th, utilizing 450
tanks. British and French troops maintained the offensive during the
Second Battles of the Somme and of Arras, from August 21st to September
3rd. The Allies regained Roye (August 27th), Bapaume and Noyon (August
28th), and Peronne (August 31st), forcing the Germans to retreat to
the Hindenburg Line. American forces, captured a large number of Germans
on September 13th at the St. Mihiel salient. The Allied Commander-in-Chief,
French General Ferdinand Foch, ordered a major pincher movement to cut
off the main German railway lines with an American attack through the
Argonne and a British offensive towards Cambrai and Lille. The Battles
of the Argonne and of Ypres lasted from September 28th until October
2nd. The Americans moved through the Argonne and the British captured
St. Quentin, Lens, and Armentieres by October 2nd. Hearing the news
of the Bulgarian surrender, German General Erich von Ludendorff called
on the German government to initiate armistice terms on September 29th. |
| August
13, 1918 |
Czech
War Declaration against Germany |
The leaders
of the Czech Legion declared war on the Central Powers and the British
government recognized Czechoslovakia as a nation. |
| August
26-September 14, 1918 |
Turkish
Offensive against Baku |
The Turks
mounted a vigorous attack against the British occupying forces in Baku,
beginning on August 26th. The British had to evacuate the city on September
14th to the Turks. |
| August
30, 1918 |
Attempted
Assassination of Lenin |
A Social
Revolutionary attempted to assassinate Nicholai Lenin. Since the Soviet
regime was in severe crisis, the attack created a panic and resulted
in a systematic reign of terror by the Bolsheviks. A large number of
Russian intellectuals and bourgeois were eliminated in the purge. |
| September
3, 1918 |
U.S.
Recognition of Czechoslovakia |
The Wilson
administration recognized Czechoslovakia as a nation in support of the
Czech Legion's operations in Russia. |
| September
15, 1918 |
Austrian
Peace Conference Proposal |
The Austrian
government appealed to President Woodrow Wilson to call an informal
peace conference to discuss terms. President Wilson rejected the Austrian
overture on September 20th.. |
| September
15-24, 1918 |
Battle
of Dobropolje/Monastir-Doiran |
By June
1918, the Allies had landed over 29 divisions (over 700,000) at Saloniki
in Greece and the Allies ordered French General Franchet d'Esperey to
launch an offensive against the Bulgarians. On September 15th, the Allies
attacked from Albania to the Struma River and drove a wedge between
the German and Bulgarian forces. The Bulgarian government sued for peace
in response to the Allied offensive. |
| September
15-October 26, 1918 |
British
Offensive in Syria |
The British
army launched a major offensive out of Palestine, beginning on September
15th with the Battle of Megiddo. The British broke through the Turkish
lines near the Mediterranean coast and forced the Germans to retreat
through Trans-Jordania and Damascus to Aleppo. With the support of the
Arabs, under Colonel Lawrence, the British advanced into Syria. The
Anglo-Arab army captured Damascus on October 2nd while the French navy
seized Beirut on October 7th. The Anglo-Arab force continued north,
taking Homs on October 15th and Aleppo on October 18th, while the French
gained Alexandretta on October 18th. The advance helped persuade the
Turkish government to sue for an armistice. |
| September
30, 1918 |
Saloniki/Bulgarian
Armistice |
The Bulgarian
government signed an armistice with the Allies at Saloniki. Under the
terms of the agreement, the Bulgarian army was immediately demobilized
and its equipment was transferred to the Allies. The Bulgarians agreed
to evacuate all Greek and Serbian territory under their control and
turn over all of their transportation assets to the Allies. In addition,
the Bulgarians had to open their territory to Allied military operations. |
| October
1-November 10, 1918 |
Allied
Occupation of Bulgaria |
Allied
forces immediately began the occupation of Bulgaria after the signing
of the Saloniki Armistice. Allied forces advanced into Thrace, in an
effort to force the Turks to open the Straits, and reached the Maritza
River on October 30th. Another Allied force advanced north through Bulgaria
and crossed the Danube River at Rutschuk on November 10th in Austro-Hungarian
territory. |
| October
4, 1918 |
Prince
Max New German Chancellor |
In response
to General Erich von Ludendorff's assessment on the Western Front, the
German government under Count George von Hertling resigned and Prince
Max of Baden became the new German Chancellor and Foreign Minister.
|
| October
4, 1918 |
German
and Austrian Armistice Appeals |
The German
and Austrian governments sent appeals to President Woodrow Wilson for
an armistice based on his Fourteen Points. Over the next few weeks,
there was an exchange of diplomatic notes between Berlin and Washington.
President Wilson demanded the evacuation of all occupied territories
and insisted that the Allies could only negotiate with a democratic
government. |
| October
4, 1918 |
Abdication
of Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria |
The collapse
of the Bulgarian defenses outside Saloniki forced Tsar Ferdinand to
abdicate from the Bulgarian throne in favor of his son, Boris III. |
| October
4, 1918 |
Austro-German
Armistice Proposal |
The Austrian
government joined the German government in an appeal for a general armistice.
Close to victory, the Allies refused to consider the proposal. |
| October
5, 1918 |
French
Occupation of Beirut |
The French
navy seized Beirut from the Turks and British forces occupied the city.
Emir Faisal declared the establishment of the Syrian State. |
| October
5-November 30, 1918 |
Serbian
Offensive in Serbia |
After the
Bulgarian collapse, Serbian forces reentered their homeland, capturing
Vranje on October 5th, Nish on October 11th, and liberating Belgrade
on November 1st. The Serbian army crossed the Danube River and advanced
into the Banat of Temesvar, occupying the province by the end of November.
|
| October
7-November 4, 1918 |
Italian
Offensive in Albania |
With the
Bulgarian armistice, Italian forces advanced into Albania, over which
Italy had proclaimed a protectorate in June 1917. The Italian army captured
Elbasan on October 7th; Durazzo, Ipek, and Novi Bazar on October 14th;
San Giovanni on October 29th; Scutari on October 31st; and Antivari
on November 4th. |
| October
12, 1918 |
Polish
Regency Council |
The Regency
Council took over Polish affairs on October 12th. This government was
formed by the Germans in October 1917 in preparation of an independent
Polish kingdom. |
| October
13-14, 1918 |
Turkish
Government Reorganization |
The new
Turkish sultan, Mohammed VI, dismissed the Young Turk ministers (Talaat
Pasha and Enver Bey) and appointed Izzet Pasha as the new Grand Vizier
on October 13th in light of the Bulgarian armistice and the Turkish
military collapse in Syria. The new government then appealed to President
Woodrow Wilson to arrange an armistice with the Allies the next day.
When President Wilson failed to reply, the Turks released British General
Charles Townsend to serve as an emissary to the British naval commander
in the Aegean, Admiral Sir Somerset Calthorpe, to negotiate an end to
the fighting. |
| October
14, 1918 |
U.S.
Demand for Suspension of Submarine Warfare |
President
Woodrow Wilson demanded that the German government suspend submarine
warfare against Allied shipping as one of the pre-requisites for an
armistice. |
| October
14, 1918 |
Provisional
Czechoslovak Government |
The Czechoslovak
National Council in Paris organized a provisional government with Thomas
Masaryk as president and Eduard Benes as foreign minister. |
| October
16, 1918 |
Reorganization
of Austria as a Federation |
Kaiser
Karl proclaimed the reorganization of Austria into a federal state which
would provide complete self-government for the subject nationalities.
The reorganization did not extend to Hungary and was too late to thwart
the nationalist movements. |
| October
17, 1918 |
Hungarian
Independence under the Hapsburg Crown |
The Hungarian
parliament, in reply to Kaiser Karl's reorganization of Austria, declared
the kingdom's complete independence from Austria, except for ties of
personal union through the emperor. |
| October
18-November 10, 1918 |
Allied
Fall Offensive on the Western Front |
The British
began a major offensive in the north, taking Ostend, Zeebrugge, Roubaix,
Lille, and Douai by October 18th, Bruges on October 19th, and Valenciennes
on November 1st. The Americans also resumed their offensive and by November
10th the Americans had reached Sedan. The Allies began to make plans
for a Spring 1919 offensive, which called for an offensive against Metz
on the Western Front combined with an Allied offensive through Austria
and into Bavaria. |
| October
19, 1918 |
Independence
of Serbia-Croatia-Slovenia |
The National
Council at Zagreb declared its political authority and declared for
union between Croatia and Serbia. |
| October
20, 1918 |
Suspension
of Submarine Warfare |
The German
government suspended all U-boot operations against Allied shipping in
response to President Woodrow Wilson's demand. The Germans sank 14.5
million gross tons of Allied shipping during the war. |
| October
24-November 4, 1918 |
Italian
Offensive in Northern Italy |
The Italians
began the Battle of Vittorio Veneto on October 24th when Italian troops
opened a major offensive from the Trentino to the Adriatic. Although
the Austrians mounted a stiff defense at Monte Grappa, the Austrian
position on the lower Piave collapsed. The Italians captured Vittorio
Veneto on October 30th and the Austro-Hungarian army dissolved, resulting
in the capture of hundreds of thousands of war prisoners. The Italians
continued their advance, capturing Trieste on November 3rd and Fiume
on November 5th. |
| October
25, 1918 |
Wilson
Peace Appeal to the American Public |
President
Woodrow Wilson decided to make the upcoming congressional elections
a test of confidence in his politics and he urged American voters to
elect Democratic majorities in the House of Representatives and the
Senate. He was anxious that the American position not be weakened in
the peace conference. The Republicans condemned the appeal as a violation
of President Wilson's wartime truce on domestic politics. On November
5th, the Democrats lost the House by 21 seats and the Senate by two
seats. |
| October
27, 1918 |
Austrian
Peace Proposal |
The new
Austrian foreign minister, Julius Andrassy, notified the Wilson administration
that Austria was willing to recognize the rights of the subject nationalities
and sought a separate peace with the Allies. |
| October
28, 1918 |
German
Democratic Reforms |
Kaiser
Wilhelm II issued a major reform of the German constitution to provide
for a democratic form of government. The reforms are considered too
late to save the empire. |
| October
28, 1918 |
Czechoslovak
Independence |
The Czechoslovak
National Council declared the nation's independence from Austria and
established a government in Prague. |
| October
28, 1918 |
Mutiny
on SMS Markgraf |
While preparing
for a final raid against the British, the crew of the German warship
SMS Markgraf mutinied and refused to go to sea. The mutiny soon spread
to other German warships. |
| October
29, 1918 |
Austrian
Unconditional Surrender to Italy |
The Austrians
offered to surrender unconditionally to the Italians as the Dual Monarchy
collapsed into political chaos. |
| October
30, 1918 |
Mudros/Turkish
Armistice |
The Turkish
government signed an armistice with the Allies at Mudros, which went
into effect the next day. The Turks agreed to open the Straits, repatriate
all of their Allied prisoners-of-war, sever diplomatic relations with
the Central Powers, and open Turkish territory to the Allies for military
operations. |
| October
30, 1918 |
German
National Council in Vienna |
Revolution
broke out in Vienna as the German National Council emerged as the new
government for the German provinces of Austria. |
| October
30, 1918 |
Slovak
Union with the Czechs |
The Slovak
National Council voted for union with the Czechs, establishing the republic
of Czechoslovakia. |
| October
31, 1918 |
Hungarian
Revolution |
A revolution
broke out in Hungary and Premier Kalman Tisza was assassinated. Count
Michael Karolyi, an extreme liberal and republican with pacifist views,
became the new Hungarian prime minister. The Hungarians hoped to receive
satisfactory peace terms from the Allies and to maintain the unity of
the kingdom. |
| November
1, 1918 |
Hungarian
Independence |
Count Michael
Karolyi established an independent Hungarian government in Budapest. |
| November
1, 1918 |
Polish
War Declaration on the Ukraine |
The Polish
Regency Council declared war on the Ukraine and reconquered Galacia
for the new Polish state. The Poles took Lemberg on November 23rd. |
| November
2-14, 1918 |
German
Invasion of Rhodesia |
German
General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck began an invasion of Rhodesia from Lake
Nyasa on November 2nd. They continued fighting British colonial forces
until the establishment of an armistice on November 14th and were the
last German forces in the field in World War I. |
| November
3, 1918 |
Kiel
Mutiny |
Upon hearing
news that the German Navy planned one last naval raid, sailors at Kiel
mutinied and refused to go to sea. The mutiny quickly spread to Hamburg,
Bremen, and Luebeck and engulfed northwestern Germany. The revolutionaries
formed councils of workers and soldiers to take over control of local
government. |
| November
3, 1918 |
Proclamation
of Polish Republic |
The Poles
announced the establishment of the Polish Republic in Warsaw on November
3rd and the new government fell under the control of General Joseph
Pilsudski, who returned from prison in Germany on November 10th. The
Regency Council granted General Pilsudski full military powers on November
14th and resigned. |
| November
3, 1918 |
Austro-Hungarian
Armistice |
The Austro-Hungarian
government negotiated an armistice with the Allied powers. The Dual
Monarchy agreed to complete demobilization of Austro-Hungarian forces
and the withdrawal of their troops from German forces; surrender of
half of the empire's military equipment; the evacuation of territories
occupied by Austro-Hungarian forces as well as territory under dispute
between Austrians, Italians, and Slavs; Allied occupation of strategic
points in the empire; and the surrender of the Austro-Hungarian fleet. |
| November
4-December 27, 1918 |
British
Occupation of Armenia |
After the
armistice with Turkey, British forces occupied Mosul on November 4th
and advanced into Azerbaijan, reoccupying Batum on November 17th. The
British then seized control of Georgia, entering Batum on December 27th. |
| November
5, 1918 |
Allied
Acceptance of the Fourteen Points |
With the
approaching collapse of Germany, the British and French governments
became reluctant to embrace President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points
as the basis for the peace settlement. President Wilson responded by
threatening to negotiate a separate peace with the Germans. The British
and French governments accepted the Fourteen Points on November 5th
with two key reservations: the Allies reserved the unqualified right
to discuss freedom of the seas in the peace conference; and demanded
that German restoration of evacuated territory include war reparations
for damages to the civilian population. President Wilson accepted these
provisions and transmitted them to the German government. French General
Ferdinand Foch became responsible for the negotiation of the final truce. |
| November
7-8, 1918 |
Munich
Revolution/Bavarian Republic |
Revolutionary
forces, led by Kurt Eisner, an independent Socialist, took over the
government in Munich and the King of Bavaria abdicated his throne. The
revolutionaries proclaimed the Bavarian Republic and similar outbreaks
spread to other German cities. Political tensions spread to Berlin and
the German government concluded that it was imperative for Kaiser Wilhelm
II to abdicate if the monarchy was to be preserved. Kaiser Wilhelm,
who was at the military headquarters in Spa, was reluctant to give up
his throne. |
| November
7, 1918 |
Serb-Croat-Slovene
Union |
Representatives
in Geneva decided to unite Croatia and Slovenia with Serbia and Montenegro
and form a new unified kingdom. |
| November
8, 1918 |
Compiegne/German
Armistice |
Mathias
Erzberger, leader of the Center Party, led the German armistice commission
and met with French General Ferdinand Foch in a railway car near Compiegne.
The Allies submitted harsh terms designed to cripple the Germans and
make them accept the final peace terms. The armistice required the Germans
to evacuate all occupied territory on the Western Front and west of
the Rhein River, which would be occupied by Allied forces. Allied troops
would also occupy three bridgeheads over the Rhein (Coblenz, Cologne,
and Mainz). The Germans had to renounce the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
and the Treaty of Bucharest and German forces had to retreat from Austria-Hungary,
Romania, Turkey, and, eventually, Russia. The Germans had to surrender
5,000 locomotives, 5,000 trucks, and 150,000 freight cars as well as
160 submarines and a large number of warships. In addition, the Germans
had to destroy aircraft, tanks, and heavy artillery. The Allies would
maintain a naval blockade of the German coastline until the conclusion
of a peace and reserved the right to make claims for damages. The terms
were non-negotiable and lasted for 30 days, subject to periodic renewal
until the final peace was signed. |
| November
9, 1918 |
Abdication
of Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany |
The German
Chancellor, Prince Max of Baden, announced the abdication of Kaiser
Wilhelm II of Germany. Philipp Scheidemann, the leader of the Socialists,
announced the establishment of the German Republic. Prince Max turned
over the government to the Majority Socialists, led by Friedrich Ebert
and Philipp Schiedemann. The next day, upon learning from General Paul
von Hindenburg that he could not guarantee the loyalty of the German
army, Kaiser Wilhelm fled across the border into the Netherlands in
his special train and eventual internment. |
| November
10, 1918 |
Romanian
War Declaration against Germany |
With the
entry of Allied forces into Romania, the new pro-Allied government under
General Constantine Coanda, which took power on November 8th, declared
war on Germany. |
| November
10, 1918 |
New
Government in Berlin |
Independent
and Majority Socialists formed a joint ministry in Berlin under the
Council of People's Delegates. This marked the beginning of a struggle
for power between the Spartacists, led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg
(who favored a Communist regime), and the Social Democrats (Majority
Socialists), who supported a gradual abandonment of capitalism. |
| November
10, 1918 |
Act
of Union and Icelandic Sovereignty |
By the
Act of Union, the Danish government recognized Iceland as a sovereign
state, united with Denmark through the Danish crown. Until 1944, certain
affairs were handled jointly by the Danish and Icelandic governments. |
| November
11, 1918 |
Western
Front Armistice |
Fighting
ended at 11:00 AM on the Western Front and the Allies dispatched troops
to take over the occupied territories and western Germany. The last German
troops departed France on November 18th and Belgium on November 26th.
French troops occupied Strassbourg on November 25th, while British and
American forces began the occupation of Germany on December 1st. |
| November
11, 1918 |
Lithuanian
National Government |
With the
collapse of Germany, King William stepped down from the Lithuanian throne
and Augustine Voldemaras formed a new national government. The Germans
had to evacuate from Lithuania and the Bolsheviks again invaded the
country. |
| November
12, 1918 |
Abdication
of Kaiser Karl of Austria |
Kaiser
Karl abdicated this thrones in Austria and Hungary and the Austrians
established a provisional government in Vienna. |
| November
12, 1918 |
Passage
of Allied Fleet through the Dardenelles |
In keeping
with the terms of the Turkish armistice, the Allied fleet passed through
the Dardenelles on November 12th and arrived at Constantinople the next
day. |
| November
12, 1918 |
Austrian
Union with Germany |
The provisional
government in Austria, now composed solely of German provinces, proclaimed
its union with Germany. |
| November
13, 1918 |
Proclamation
of the Austrian Republic |
With the
abdication of Kaiser Karl, the government proclaimed the establishment
of the Austrian Republic. |
| November
13, 1918 |
Abdication
of King Karl of Hungary |
After having
surrendered his imperial title in Vienna, King Karl abdicated from the
Hungarian throne. |
| November
13, 1918 |
Russian
Cancellation of Treaty of Brest-Litovsk |
The Soviet
Russian government cancelled its peace treaty with the Central Powers
which allowed the Bolsheviks to undertake policies designed to restore
former Russian lands. |
| November
14, 1918 |
Czechoslovak
National Assembly |
The Czechoslovak
National Assembly met in Prague to confirm the establishment of the
republic and the presidency of Thomas Masaryk. |
| November
14, 1918 |
German
Fleet Surrender |
The German
fleet surrendered at sea to the Royal Navy. The German warships then
steamed to internment at Scapa Flow. |
| November
15, 1918 |
New
Ukrainian Government under Petliura |
The pro-German
General Pavel Skoropadski was overthrown by the Ukrainian Socialists,
led by General Simon Petliura. He continued to fight the Bolsheviks
to maintain an independent Ukraine. |
| November
16, 1918 |
Proclamation
of the Hungarian Republic |
Following
the abdication of King Karl, the National Council proclaimed the establishment
of the Hungarian Republic. |
| November
17, 1918 |
Latvian
People's Council Established |
The Latvian
People's Council appointed Karlis Ulmanis the new prime minister. The
next day, the council proclaimed the independence of the State of Latvia. |
| November
18, 1918 |
Kolchak
Government in Russia |
Admiral
Alexander Kolchak overthrew the All-Russian Government (an anti-Bolshevik,
liberal regime composed of conservative military and political leaders)
in Omsk and became the Dictator of All Russia. The Kolchak government
controlled most of Siberia and part of eastern Russia. |
| November
18, 1918 |
Wilson
Attendance at Peace Conference |
President
Woodrow Wilson announced that he planned to attend the peace conference
in Paris, which resulted in a storm of criticism by the Republicans.
Their ire was exacerbated by President Wilson's choice of members of
the U.S. Peace Commission, which included only one Republican (Henry
White) and no senators. |
| November
18-December 24, 1918 |
Siberian
White Russian Offensive in Eastern Russia |
White Russian
forces under Admiral Alexander Kolchak began an offensive into eastern
Russia, capturing Perm and Ufa on December 24th. |
| November
20, 1918 |
Philippine
Division in U.S. Army |
The Wilson
administration federalized the first Filipino division for service with
the U.S. Army. |
| November
22, 1918 |
Soviet
Invasion of Estonia |
The withdrawal
of German troops from Estonia led to an invasion of the country by Soviet
forces. The Estonians mounted valiant resistance, with the support of
the Royal Navy. |
| November
24, 1918 |
Proclamation
of Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom |
The government
proclaimed the establishment of the United Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats,
and Slovenes at Zagreb. King Peter of Serbia became the new king, with
Prince Alexander serving as regent for the aged king. |
| November
25, 1918 |
German
National Constituent Assembly |
Representatives
of the new German state governments met for a conference in Berlin to
plan for the election of a National Constituent Assembly. |
| November
26, 1918 |
Montenegran
Union with Serb-Croat-Slovene Kingdom |
Because
King Nicolas of Montenegro opposed the union of Montenegro with the
new United Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, the Montenegran parliament
deposed King Nicolas and voted for union with the new kingdom. |
| November
27, 1918 |
Bessarabian
Union with Romania |
The National
Council of Bessarabia voted for unconditional union with Romania. The
Russian government refused to recognize the union and the Bessarabian
Question plagued relations between the two countries until 1944. |
| November
28, 1918 |
Official
Abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II |
Although
already in exile in the Netherlands, Kaiser Wilhelm II did not official
abdicate the imperial German throne until April 28th. |
| November
28, 1918 |
Bukovinan
Union with Romania |
The Bukovina
National Council voted for union with Romania. |
| December
1, 1918 |
Transylvanian
Union with Romania |
A national
assembly of Romanians in Transylvania and the Banat at Alba Julia voted
for union with Romania. |
| December
1, 1918 |
Anglo-American
Occupation of Germany |
British
and American forces began their occupation of Germany west of the Rhein
River and three Rhein bridgeheads. The Allies occupy Cologne on December
6th and Mainz on December 9th. |
| December
5, 1918 |
Allied
Blockade of the Baltic |
The Allied
Powers extended their naval blockade of Germany to extend to the Baltic
coastline. |
| December
8, 1918 |
Swiss
Severance of Relations with Soviet Russia |
In light
of evidence of Bolshevik subversive propaganda, the Swiss government
broke off diplomatic relations with Soviet Russia. |
| December
8, 1918 |
Allied
Military Administration in Constantinople |
The Allied
powers established a military administration in Constantinople to supervise
the governance of Turkey until the conclusion of a peace treaty. |
| December
11, 1918 |
New
Finnish Government |
With the
defeat of Germany, General Baron Karl Gustav Mannerheim became the new
Finnish head of state. |
| December
13, 1918 |
Arrival
of Wilson in France |
President
Woodrow Wilson, accompanied by the U.S. Peace Commission (Colonel Edward
House, Secretary of State Robert Lansing, General Tasker Bliss, and
Henry White), arrived in France to participate in the Paris Peace Conference. |
| December
16, 1918 |
Spartacist
Opposition to the National Assembly |
A congress
of workers' and soldiers' councils in Berlin refused to invite Karl
Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg to participate in the deliberations. This
demonstrated the councils' support for the moderate policy of the Social
Democrats. The Spartacists opposed the plan for a National Assembly. |
| December
18, 1918 |
French
Occupation of Odessa |
The French
seized control of the Ukrainian port of Odessa to help support the White
Russian forces fighting the Red Army in the Russian Civil War. The Allies
eventually landed troops and equipment to support military campaigns
in the Ukraine and southern Russia. |
| December
25, 1918 |
Albanian
National Assembly |
The Albanian
National Assembly elected Turkhan Pasha the new president. The Albanian
government had to deal with Serbian-Croat incursions in the northern
part of the country as well as the Italians on the coast. |
| December
27-28, 1918 |
Polish
Occupation of Posen |
General
Joseph Pilsudski sought to mark out Poland's western border and sent
Polish troops to occupy Poznania (Posen). General Pilsudski began the
process of reaching agreements with provisional governments in Cracow
and Paris in an effort to form a provisional national government. |
| December
31, 1918 |
Abdication
of King Frederick Charles of Finland |
With the
departure of German troops and influence in Finland, King Frederick
Charles gave up the Finnish throne. |