. [2]see in de Kruif, P. Microbe Hunters , pp. 25-56, Blue Ribbon Books, New York, 1926.
[3]Pliny the Elder, Natural History (Naturalis Historia], (77 AD ca.) Book XI, The Loeb Classical Library vol. III, p 266 ff.: "With lizards and snakes when cut off they [tails] grow again." Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1949.
[4]ibid., "Actual cases of two tails are found in lizards."
[5]Saint Albertus Magnus (1193-1280), "Man and beast", Books 22-26 of De animalibus, translated by J. Scanlan, Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, Binghamton, N.Y. 1987.
[6]Lenhoff, H. N. and S. G. Lenhoff in A history of regeneration research , ed. by C. E. Dinsmore, University of Cambridge, New York, 1991, p. 60.
[7]op. cit.
[8]The fragments of Empedocles, translated by W. E. Leonard. Open Court Publishing, Chicago, 1908.
[9]Barth, L. G. 1955 Regeneration, Invertebrates, in Analysis of Development, ed. by B. H. Willier, P. A. Weiss and V. Hamburger, Saunders, Philadelphia and London, pp. 664-673.
[10]Spallanzani, L. 1768 Programme au precis d'un ouvre sur les reproductions animals. Traduit. de L'Italien par M. B. de la Sabione. Geneve.
[11]Spallanzani, L. 1768 Prodomo di un'opera de imprimersi sopra le riproduzioni animali dato in luce dall'abate Spallanzani. Nella stamperia di G. Montanari. Modena.
[12]Spallanzani, L. An essay on animal reproductions, translated by M. Maty. T. Beckett, London, 1769.
[13]ibid. p. 70.
[14]Butler, E. G. 1931 X-irradiation and regeneration in Amblystoma. Science 74:100-101; 1933 The effects of x-irradiation on the regeneration of the forelimb of Amblystoma larvae. J. Ext. Zool. 65:271-303; 1935 Studies on limb regeneration in x-rayed Ambylstoma larvae. Anat. Rec 62:295-307.
[15]Trampusch, H. A. L. 1956 The effects of X-rays on regenerative capacity, in Regeneration invertebrates, ed by C. S. Thronton, University of Chicago Press, 83-98.
[16]Butler, E. G. and J. P. O'Brien Effects of localized X-radiation on regeneration of the urodele limb. Anat. Rec. 84:407-413, 1942.
[17]approximately 5,000 rads
[18]see Benson, K. R. in A history of regeneration research, ed. by C. E. Dinsmore, Cambridge University Press, New York and Cambridge, 1991 p. 91 ff.
[19]see literature in Pietsch, P. The effects of retinoic on mitosis during tail and limb regeneration in the axolotl larva, Ambystoma mexicanum. Roux's Arch. Dev. Biol. 196: 169-178, 1987.
[20]Ragsdale, C. et al Identification of a novel retinoic acid receptor in regenerative tissue of the newt. Nature 341: 654-647, 1989.
[21]see Pietsch, P. Effects of retinoic acid on the muscle patterns produced during forelimb regeneration in larval salamanders (Ambystoma). Cytobios 66: 41-61, 1991.
[22]ibid. p. 59.
Here is some of what Aristotle had to say about regeneration: "Some affirm that the same phenomenon is observable with serpents as with swallow chicks; in other words, they say that if you prick out a serpent's eyes they will grow again [the won't]. And further, the tails of saurians and of serpents, if they are cut off, will grow again [essentially true]." from D'Arcy Thompson, The Works of Aristotle Translated into English, vol. IV, Oxford, 1910, page 508b. Note, the latter is from Aristotle's Historia Animalium, Book II.
This is a picture of salamander larva known around the lab as Long Handy. What's in his right eye socket was his original right arm. The right arm you see there in the picture is actually a regenerate. The same is true of left arm. In fact, the arm in the eye socket is just putting the finishing touches on regeneration, from the forearm down. For after it healed in place following the graft operation, the transplant also received an amputation, just below its elbow. (Can you guess now why the "Handy" part of Long Handy's name?) Although Long Handy is a very interesting creature in his own right, (but could have caused the author to be burned at the stake in Galileo's day or in Salem -- or at an anti-vivisectionists convention) the experiments of which the animal was a part had very serious purposes. (If you've guessed from the "Long" part of his name that there's also a Short Handy, you're right.)
The muscles that attached to the eyeball in these "orbital transplants" would grow into the graft for a distance and the arm and eye muscle groups would mix in a sort of zone of overlap. When the donor limb was short, all the muscle patterns of the orbitally transplanted limb would be changed. But in the long ones (like Long Handy here), the transplant's muscle would keep its normal pattern. These observations gave me not only a way of changing the make-up of the stump, prior to amputation, but of controlling the other variables built into transplanting. I asked the question, if I amputate will the regenerated parts show normal skeletons and musculatures? This answers still have me scratching my head.
In the "longs" the regenerated muscles had normal patterns. In the "shorties" they had dramatically changed. But long or short, the skeletons showed anatomy that was perect for the limb:
.