Unit 1 Notes:
Participant Development in Recreational Sport
Bonanno (1987) said that "the use of sport as an educational tool" is one of the
greatest outcomes of participation in
recreational sports. As recreational sports programmers, this notion of
"participant development" becomes one of the most
important aspects of our jobs.
Participant development is defined as "the process of designing and delivering
sport programs that create learning experiences
for the player participants and volunteer program leaders." Successful examples
of participant development in recreational
sports programs can be seen as:
- developing physical and mental abilities
- learning emotional control
- learning the process of autonomy
- creating self esteem
- honing interpersonal skills
- teaching integrity, identity and health
Successful recreational sports programmers should develop programs which
incorporate a participant development component that encompasses:
- leadership skills
- sport skills applicable in other leisure pursuits
- positive attitudes toward participation in sport
What is the connection between program design and participant development? By
understanding how program design and
delivery satisfy needs, we can design systems to encourage a positive sport
experience, develop leadership, and contribute to
the growth and development of an individual.
In understanding the concept of participant development, there are a few
concepts that we need to define. There are generally
2 concepts associated with human development. When we refer to growth we
are referring to the physical and physiological
changes that occur throughout life. The concept of development, however,
refers to the functional changes (language skills,
emotional control, interpersonal skills, identity, competence, and autonomy)
that occur throughout life.
Recreational sport programmers must also have an insight into the various "life
stages" that are associated with human growth
and development in order to better understand their clientele, enhance
predictability in terms of how participants will respond to certain recreational
sports programs, and to better design programs and experiences that fit a
particular life stage of potential participants.
A life stage refers to a time that establishes many growth and
developmental characteristics common among human beings.
Each life stage is associated with certain implications for recreational sports
programmers to consider when designing
programs. Each life stage requires the acquisition of particular skills,
attitudes, knowledge, or functions to meet challenges. The
degree to which an individual masters these challenges is influenced by their
heredity, environment, and individual attributes.
A more detailed version of the developmental characteristics of the 5 age groups
can be found in table 2.1 in the textbook. A
general description of each of the 5 life stages, with programming implications
is listed below:
Youth (ages 6-12)
Programming implication: plan for skill development and create a social
environment for bonding sport interaction.
Adolescence (ages 13-19)
Programming implication: immense intensity of sport experiences and recognition
of leadership and development opportunities.
Early Adulthood (ages 20-39)
Programming implication: increased attention to programming sport for safety and
time considerations. New learning
experiences can occur, and greater responsibility, is assumed by the
participants.
Middle Adulthood (ages 40-65)
Programming implication: Ongoing fitness needs apparent. Greater care in the
physiological aspects of programming as chance
of injury increases.
Later Adulthood (over age 65)
Programming implication: Greater education on the need for movement to prevent
sedentary lifestyles.
Participant development experiences generally have an affect on 2 different
participation types. The program participant is
the individual who is actually directly involved with participating in
recreational sports programs. The program participant
learns to handle winning/losing, handle competition, control of emotions and
aggression, and provides input through various
means into the design and direction of the sport experience. Generally, program
participants provide input through program
evaluations or through participant advisory boards. The program leader is a
participant who volunteers for the additional
duties of organizing teammates, sport experiences or other participants. The
program leader is involved in learning and
interpreting the program to others, due to his/her greater exposure to rules and
program interpretation. The program leader is
often responsible for enforcing rules and standards of conduct, while
participating in leadership development opportunities,
gaining recognition for duties beyond that of the program participant. Examples
of program leaders are team managers,
fraternity/sorority intramural chairperson, team captain, volunteer coaches,
etc.
The impact of program design and delivery on participant development is broken
down into 7 distinct areas:
Staff:
- plays a large role in participant development
- develops positive relationships with participants by being accessible and
possessing communication skills
increases contact with participants
- provides leadership positions that encourage participants to become involved
in program operations
- encourages participants to display acceptable behavior and explore their
potential by serving as a competent role model
- serves in various capacities as an instructor, trainer, consultant, advisor,
evaluator, and role model
Program:
- must provide suitable, diverse and well-balanced programs
- participants have diverse interests and skill levels; programmers should
provide variety in sports, program types, and skill
level classifications
- sports vary in the way they influence participant development; development
opportunities differ between team sport,
dual/individual sport, group sport, meet sport, special events, and
co-recreational sport
- units of participation also affect development (skill level, gender, living
units, physical characteristics, etc.)
Rules and Regulations:
- when rules enhance the perception that one can achieve success, they encourage
continued involvement in sport
(example: skill level eligibility rules, youth sport participation
guidelines)
- development is contingent on participation
- rules provide directions for behavior
- rules provide the ability to follow expectations and deal with consequences to
actions
Governance:
- councils, boards, steering committees provide frequent contact with staff and
other role models
- participants gain decision making skills, benefit from mistakes, interact with
others, listen effectively, consider needs and
- concerns with others, gain responsibility, strengthen identity, develop
consistency between their values and their behavior
- responsibility is a direct function of age, experience, maturity
Personnel:
- positions within recreational sports programs (generally part-time, auxiliary
staff such as officials, supervisors, event
personnel)
- staff positions learn autonomy, integrity, emotional control, competency,
identity, interpersonal skills
Evaluation:
- participants provide feedback into program design and operations
- feedback affects program design and delivery
Recognition:
- recognition bolsters self esteem
- limited recognition fosters apathy, resentment and low self esteem
- recreational sport programs should recognize, 1) involvement, 2) improvement,
3) contribution
- types of recognition are generally categorized as, 1) personal approach, 2)
awards, 3) point systems
Note on "recognition": check out the text, chapter 2, for a list of the
advantages and disadvantages of award systems!
What are the general developmental outcomes of recreational sports programs? An
article by Elaine Todaro, "The
Impact of Recreational Sports Programs on Student Development" examines the
impact of 7 developmental outcomes on
collegiate recreational sports participants. You should read this article (given
to you in class) because it is discusses the important aspects in understanding
participant development outcomes. While this article was based on college
students, these developmental outcomes can be applied to any participants in any
developmental life stage.
The reason this article is so effective is that it serves as a justification for
the field of recreational sports management. A big
justification is that participation in recreational sport programs serve an
educational function for the community they serve. The
article is based on a study first completed in 1969 by Arthur Chickering.
Chickering's model was based on the concept of
experiential learning, or the idea that people develop certain competencies by
doing certain activities. Chickering's
hypothesis is that "the experiences to which a college student is exposed have
the potential to have a substantive impact on that student's overall
development" (Todaro, 1993). Participation in recreational sports, then "has the
opportunity to influence the psychosocial development of students" (Todaro,
1993).
For a description of Chickering's 7 Vectors of Student Development, check out
Todaro's article.