Unit 1 Notes:
Competition and Cooperation in
Recreational Sport
Objectives:
1. Examine different concepts and definitions of competition
2. Explore the role of competition and its effect on recreational sports philosophy
Some famous quotes related to competition in sport:
"Winning isn't everything, its the only thing", Vince Lombardi
"The winner is the only individual who is truly alive", George Allen
"Every time you win, you're reborn; when you lose, you die a little", George Allen
"We never lose, but sometimes the clock runs out on us", Vince Lombardi
"It isn't whether you win or lose, its how you play the game", Classic Sports Adage
Some Definitions of Competition
Loy (1969). "A struggle for supremecy between 2 or more opposing sides."
Slusher, cited by Fait & Bailey (1974). "A contention of interests...a rivalry between opposing forces (man, animal, or nature)
in which the interests of both are not mutually obtainable."
Coakley (1990). "A process through which success is measured by directly comparing the achievements of those who are
performing the same physical activity under standardized conditions or rules."
General Definition: "A situation in which 2 or more people vie for a prize, honor, or advantage."
Views of Competition - Negative
Hock, Scott and Edwards Study:
Competitive sports and athletics may negatively affect personality development and self image, foster aggression and
hinder the development of interpersonal relationships.
Barnett and Bryan Study:
Participation in sport may in some way undermine pro-social behaviors as helping, sharing, and cooperation
Arnold Study:
Competition is the source of envy, despair, selfishness, pride and callousness
Kleiber and Roberts:
Competition increases anti-social tendencies which are exacerbated by losing
Greendorfer:
Competition does not build character but may do just the opposite
Views of Competition - Positive
Arnold:
Competition is a training ground for challenges found in adult life
Astin:
Free enterprise system values competition because it has contributed to America's strength and gives individuals the
maximum opportunity to compete for the largest possible shape of the resources and rewards in society
Direct Competition
For each successful competitor at least one must fail - zero sum game (the sum of the winners and losers
is zero).
According to Graham, most intramural sports programs produce negative sum games - numbers of losers exceeds the number
of winners.
Indirect Competition
Utilizing past performance as a criterion to evaluate current performance - positive sum
game.
Most of the time, competition tends to be self directed. Winning and losing is not the most important outcome, skill
development and improvement in performance are the most important.
Examples:
Golf outing where there is no comparison of scores
Basketball team who strives to get better each day regardless of outcome
Runner who does not focus on time but rather on fitness level
View of Opponent as Obstacle (Fraleigh, 1984):
- opponent is a hindrance who stands between challenger in achieving a predetermined goal
- promotes a more aggressive environment for sport
- fosters domination over the opponent rather than cooperation with him/her
- more value is placed on attaining the goal than the process of attaining the goal
- the opponents' goals are incompatible (only one can achieve the goal) - supports a more hostile environment between
opponents
View of Opponent as Facilitator (Fraleigh, 1984):
- expresses a less obvious view of the relationships of opponents - this view is understood as an attempt to perform the
- same skill actions better than opponents in order to express and develop competence
- competition is an activity WITH rather than AGAINST an opponent
- cooperative atmosphere is fostered between opponents
- competition is seen to be within the spirit of the rules, NOT to dominate the opponent but to challenge the opponent's
best efforts against their own
Smith and Caron (1990):
Fraileigh's view broadens Coakley's definition - instead of just comparing achievements, participants compare intentions. This
provides for recognition for more than just winning.
Ethical Competition: support of competition as an activity WITH rather than against the opponent.
Applications for Recreational Sports Administrators:
- establish and enforce discipline codes/sportsmanship rating systems
- use participant advisory boards to provide input into program design
- training team coaches/captains/managers
- parent training programs
- training and evaluation of sports officials
- reward multiple outcomes (not just winning) in sport
- adopt and "accommodation" philosophy to promote cooperation
- allow opportunities for participant decision-making in program policy
- build in and take seriously participant evaluation of program design/delivery
- provide as much choice to participants as possible
Is competition a "learned behavior" in participants or is it instinctive? This is a debate that has been at the forefront of literature
relating to competition for a long time. While there is no "right or wrong" answer to this question (there are good arguments on
both sides), it seems that competition is BOTH learned AND instinctive. How participants react to the competitive process is
based on several factors:
Past Experiences
- coaches'/parents' influence
- whether the individual was a participant or non-participant in competitive sport
- media's influence
- friends influence
- whether the individual experienced past success in sport
- the level of enthusiasm the participant has for sport
- the level of intensity in participation in sport activities
Participant Characteristics:
- game orientation (professional orientation or play orientation)
- competitive orientation
- goal orientation
- win orientation
Current Sport/Social Context:
- sport environment (program design)
- group norms and values
- other current impacting social experiences
Game Orientation:
The extent to which an individual values fair play and sportsmanship over winning in competitive sport.
Professional Orientation: participant is said to value WINNING over fair play and sportsmanship
Play Orientation: participant is said to value FAIR PLAY and SPORTSMANSHIP over winning
Question:
Does competition have a place in recreational sports?
Answer:
YES! Competition in and of itself is neither good nor bad. Negative values can only be assigned to the competitive process
when the process exhibits negative behaviors, when competition becomes the sole outcome of participation, and the value of
goal attainment (winning/losing) becomes all pervasive.